1 Introduction to Psychology

Introduction to Psychology The SQ3R method Psychology and the scientific method Goals of psychology Major schools of thought in psychology Descriptive research method Experimental method Human and animal rights in research 2

SQ3R method Survey Question Read Recite Review I/Review II LO 1.1 Survey-Learning objectives, key terms, tables, boxes Question-Learning question for each subheading; your own questions Read-keep in mind question Recite-answer the learning question-write it down, define key terms ReviewI-answer the remember it questions, mypsych lab ReviewII-review the entire chapter-read chapter summary, study guide, chapter practice test back of book

The more people at an accident the faster help will come. Eyewitness testimony is often unreliable. In close personal relationships opposites attract. The majority of teenagers have good relationships with their parents.

Psychology is a science. The scientific study of behavior and mental processes Scientific method: orderly, systematic procedures researchers follow Scientific method: how the research problem is identified, study is designed to investigate the problem, data is collected and analyzed, conclusions are made, and findings communicated

Steps of the Scientific Method LO 1.2 Observe and theorize. Formulate a hypothesis. Design the study. Collect data. Apply results to the hypothesis. Replication

Is Psychology a Science? Theory Principle proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related. Hypothesis A testable prediction about the conditions under which a particular behavior or mental process may occur. 7

LO 1.2 Figure 1.1 The Scientific Method These are the steps involved in the scientific method.

The Goals of Psychology Description Explanation Prediction Influence Description-Identifying and classifying behaviors and mental processes as accurately as possible Explanation-Proposing reasons for behaviors and mental processes Prediction-Offering predictions (or hypotheses) about how a given condition or set of conditions will affect behaviors and mental processes Influence-Using the results of research to solve practical problems that involve behavior and mental processes

The Goals of Psychology Basic Research Applied Research Basic-Seeks new knowledge Advances general scientific understanding Applied-Solves practical problems Improves the quality of life 10

Summarize it: The Goals of Psychology 11

Evaluating Theories testable hypotheses LO 1.8 testable hypotheses solutions for real-world problems. make people think-curiosity and creativity.

Psychology’s Roots LO 1.4 Psychology began as a formal academic discipline in the 1800s. Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) Considered the “father” of psychology

Schools of Thought in Psychology Behaviorism Psychoanalytic Psychology Humanistic Psychology Positive Psychology Cognitive Psychology Evolutionary Psychology Biological (Physiological) Psychology The Sociocultural Approach

Behaviorism John Watson “the science of behavior” LO 1.5 John Watson “the science of behavior” Observable, measurable behavior Environment Most influential school of thought until the 1960s

Behaviorism Skinner’s Key Points LO 1.5 Skinner’s Key Points Behavior explained by conditions before and consequences after. Operant conditioning importance of reinforcement in learning and maintaining behavior Behavior that is reinforced is likely to be repeated.

Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud Psychoanalysis Psychoanalytic Theory LO 1.5 Sigmund Freud Psychoanalysis Personality theory treatment method for psychological disorders Psychoanalytic Theory individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior as determined primarily by the unconscious -mental thoughts are like iceburg-conscious thoughts are only the tip, most is unconscious

Humanistic Psychology Humans have the capacity for choice, growth, and psychological health. Positive View of Human Nature People are innately good. Humans possess free will. Reject behaviorism and psychoanalysis, behavior not a result of environment or unconscious-humans are unique

Humanistic Psychology Key Contributors: Abraham Maslow Theory of motivation Hierarchy of needs Carl Rogers Client-centered therapy

Cognitive Psychology Focus on: Mental processes (memory, thinking, learning) to transform information Humans as active

Cognitive Psychology Gestalt Psychology Information-Processing Theory The mind interprets events doesn’t just react to them. Information-Processing Theory The brain processes information in sequential steps Similar to a computer’s serial processing

Evolutionary Psychology Investigates: Human behaviors necessary for survival How behaviors adapted Draws heavily on Darwin’s theory Attachment language

Biological (Physiological) Psychology Studies structures of the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, effects of heredity Often confused with evolutionary psychology Evolutionary psychology -universal traits (for example language) Biological psychology -individual differences For example: ear infections and learning disabilities

The Sociocultural Approach LO 1.5 How background and cultural experiences affect behavior and mental processes

Contemporary Psychological Perspectives Many psychologists take an eclectic position Combination of approaches to explain a particular behavior

Summarize It: Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology

Descriptive Research Methods LO 1.10 Descriptions of behavior Naturalistic and laboratory observation Case study Survey research Correlational method Early stages of research

Descriptive Research Methods Observation LO 1.10 Naturalistic Observation natural setting just watching Laboratory Observation laboratory setting more control and measurement

Descriptive Research Methods: Case Study LO 1.10 Studies one person or small number of persons in depth Advantages rare psychological disorders or brain damage Disadvantages cause of behavior observer bias generalizability

Descriptive Research Methods: Surveys/Questionnaires LO 1.11 Interviews and/or questionnaires attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of a group of people Population Sample Representative sample 30

Descriptive Research Methods: Surveys/Questionnaires Advantage Lots of information, short time Disadvantage Representative sample Honesty of responses Wording of questions Interviewer characteristics

Descriptive Research Methods: Correlation Measures degree of a relationship Correlation Coefficient shows the strength (number) and direction (+ or -) of the relationship +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) to −1.00 (a perfect negative correlation) What are the strengths and weaknesses of the correlational method?

Descriptive Research Methods: Correlation Number shows strength + or – shows direction Three types: Negative correlation Positive correlation No correlation X is related to Y Negative-tv watching and grades Positive-Stress and illness No correlation-eye color and grades

Figure 1.2 Positive and Negative Correlations Here are two graphs showing positive and negative correlations. (a) When positively correlated scores on two variables are graphed, the points fall along a line that rises from left to right. This graph might represent two variables such as amount of time spent studying and grades on an exam. As study time goes up, exam grades go up as well. (b) When negatively correlated scores on two variables are graphed, the points follow a line that declines from left to right. This graph might represent two variables such as amount of time spent watching television and grades on an exam. As TV time goes up, grades go down. 34

Descriptive Research Methods: Correlation LO 1.12 Advantages Information about one variable can be used to predict the other. When experiments can’t be completed Disadvantages Does not show cause

Figure 1.3 Correlation Does Not Prove Causation A correlation between two variables does not prove that a cause–effect relationship exists between them. There is a correlation between stress and illness, but that does not mean that stress necessarily causes illness. Both stress and illness may result from another factor, such as poverty or poor general health. 36

The Experimental Method: Experiments and Hypothesis Testing LO 1.13 Identify cause-effect relationships Causal hypotheses X causes Y Fruit and cereal for breakfast

The Experimental Method: Independent and Dependent Variables LO 1.13 Independent Variable (X) A factor or condition manipulated to see whether it causes any change in another behavior or condition Dependent Variable (Y) A factor or condition measured to determine the impact of the experimental manipulation Taking aspirins improves headaches Studying increases grades Observation of aggression increases aggression Color films more appealing

The Experimental Method: Experimental and Control Groups LO 1.13 Experimental Group Exposed to the independent variable Control Group Same conditions as experimental but not given the independent variable Other reasons for improvement/change Aspirin studying Lang experiment in book-4 groups-1expected alcohol, received tonic 2expected alcohol, received alcohol 3expected tonic, received alcohol

Alcohol or alcohol expectation Figure 1.5 The Mean Shock intensity Chosen by Provoked and unprovoked Participants In the Lang experiment, participants who thought they were drinking alcohol chose to give significantly stronger shocks, whether provoked or not, than those who believed they were drinking only tonic. Source: Data from Lang et al. (1995) Alcohol or alcohol expectation

Experimental Method Limitations: Confounding Variables LO 1.14 Experimental Method Limitations: Confounding Variables Factors other than the independent variable that can affect results Selection Bias Random assignment Placebo Effect person’s expectations, not treatment Experimenter Bias A researcher’s expectations Double blind technique Confounding variables-the more you control the less likely it is like the real world

Experimental Method Limitations Cannot assign participants to groups Independent variable will cause harm Naturally occurring variable –race, IQ

Summarize It: Research Methods In Psychology

Protecting Human Participants’ Rights LO 1.16 Legality Institutional Approval Informed Consent Deception Debriefing Clients, Patients, Students, and Subordinates

Protecting Human Participants’ Rights LO 1.16 Payment for Participation Participants can be paid. Must be informed about what is expected in return for payment Publication

Protecting Animals’ Rights LO 1.16 Legality Supervision by Experienced Personnel Minimization of Discomfort

Specialties in Psychology Clinical Psychologists Diagnose and treat mental and behavioral disorders School Psychologists Diagnose and treat learning and behavioral problems interfering with learning

Specialties in Psychology Forensic Psychologists Work with issues involving psychology and law Counseling Psychologists Work with adjustment problem that are generally less severe than those handled by clinical psychologists

Specialties in Psychology Physiological Psychologists Study the relationship between physiological processes and behavior Experimental Psychologists Conduct research in memory, sensation, perception, motivation, and emotion

Specialties in Psychology Developmental Psychologists Study change throughout the life span Educational Psychologists Specialize in the study of teaching and learning

Specialties in Psychology Social Psychologists Investigate individual feelings, thoughts, and behavior in a social setting—in the presence of others Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychologists Study the relationships between people and their work environments

Psychological Perspectives Behavioral perspective Environment Watson, Skinner Psychoanalytic perspective Emotions, unconscious, early childhood experiences Freud Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 52

Psychological Perspectives Humanistic perspective Humans as unique, and capable of choice and growth Maslow, Rogers Cognitive perspective Mental processes Evolutionary perspective Inherited traits Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 53

Psychological Perspectives Biological perspective Biological structures Sociocultural perspective Social and cultural variables Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 54