Educational Research Qualitative Research: Data Collection Chapter 7 (7th)/ Chapter 15 (8th) Gay and Airasian

Topics Discussed in this Chapter Selecting research participants Collecting data Observations Interviews Threats to the quality of observational and interview data Data collection various qualitative approaches

Selecting Participants Initial screening of participants Using the gatekeeper’s advice Benefits of a face-to-face meeting Previewing setting Ethical responsibilities Informed consent Protection from harm

Selecting Participants Ethical responsibilities Informed consent Knowledge of the nature and purpose of the study as well as expected roles and activities Protection from harm Anonymity – no ability to trace data to the person providing it Confidentiality – identification of the participant is kept in confidence by the researcher so it is unknown to anyone else

Selecting Participants Ethical responsibilities (continued) Questions to help assure ethical behavior Have participants knowingly consented to participate? Do participants understand what consent involves? Are participant’s rights and consents maintained during and after the study? Were participants given a description of the study and its purpose? How were the participants described?

Selecting Participants Ethical responsibilities (continued) Questions to help assure ethical behavior Was a description of the procedures in the study made clear? Were participants told what will happen to them if they agree to participate? Were participants told how the researcher would protect their identity? Were participants given information to contact the researcher or the individuals responsible for the research?

Selecting Participants Purposive sampling Suited to the unique aspects or qualitative research Strategies Extreme or deviant case Snowball Maximum variation Theory based Normal or typical cases Homogeneous cases Critical case Confirming or disconfirming cases

Selecting Participants Sample size Typically small samples to enhance “depth” of understanding Guidelines Sample relative to the extent to which participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting Sample until the data collected is redundant to that which was already collected (i.e., data saturation)

Collecting Data Characteristics The researcher is the primary source of data Two major types of data collection methods Observation Interview Use of multiple methods

Collecting Data General guidelines for initial data collection Do not take what happens in the field personally Have someone introduce you during the first visit Don’t try to accomplish too much in the first days Be relatively passive Be friendly and polite

Observation Types Participant observation Observer is actively engaged in activities at the research site Advantage – easier to gain insight into the participant’s views and develop relationships with them Disadvantage – potential for the researcher to lose objectivity

Observation Types Non-participant observation Observer watches but does not take part in activities at the research site Advantage – good strategy if the researcher cannot be a participant for some reason (e.g., age, race, gender, knowledge, etc.) Disadvantage – the lack of a relationship with participants can lead to misunderstandings

Observation Field notes Observer’s records of what has been seen, heard, experienced, and thought during an observation Two Components Description – thick descriptions of what actually takes place Reflection – the researcher’s thoughts or ideas about the meaning of what was observed

Observation Field notes (continued) Typically recorded in the field during or just subsequent to the observation Translated into an electronic format to assist in the analysis Sample protocol Who is being observed?How many participants are being observed, who are they, and what roles do they play?

Observation Field notes (continued) Sample protocol (continued) What is going on? What are people saying or doing? What is the setting like? How are people seated and where? How do participants interact with one another? What was the tone of the session? How did the meeting end in terms of the relationships among participants? What activities or interactions seemed unusual or significant? What was the researcher doing during the session?

Observation Field notes (continued) Guidelines Start slowly Try to enter the field without preconceptions Write up your field notes as soon as possible List the date, time, site, and topic on every set of field notes List key words related to your observation then outline what you heard and saw

Observation Field notes (continued) Guidelines (continued) Keep descriptive and reflective sections separate Concentrate on writing detailed descriptive field notes Write down your hunches, questions, insights, etc. after each session Number the lines of your field notes (see your word processor formats)

Observation Memo writing Process of simultaneously collecting, analyzing, and reflecting on data Observe, write, reflect - thinking on paper Functions Identify topics or issues the researcher wishes to explore in more detail Identify areas that might be important to focus on in the formal data analysis Identified categories across notes provide opportunity to be reflective about methods, ethical issues, areas for analysis, and ways to improve data analysis

Observation Other observational strategies Naturalistic observation - holistic inquiry about the participant’s understanding in the natural setting or environment Simulation observation – the researcher creates a situation to be observed and tells the participants what activities to engage in

Observation Steps for conducting observations Define the observable variable Assess observer reliability Inter-rater reliability – two observers reach agreement on what has taken place Training observers Monitoring observers

Observation Steps for conducting observations (continued) Recording observations Use of protocols Use of timed observations Observe one behavior at a time Record behavior as it occurs Use coding systems

Interviews Two definitions A purposeful interaction between two or more people focused on one person trying to get information from the other person A joint construction of meaning between the researcher and participant

Interviews Complexities related to using interviews Gender, cultural, or social differences between the interviewer and interviewee The nature of control of the situation Accuracy of responses Different semantic meanings for what is said Ability of the interviewer to probe effectively

Interviews Flexibility of format Number of participants Length of interview Structure – five levels Unstructured – exploratory and therefore focused on the interests developed during the process Partially structured – area is chosen and questions are formulated but ordering is flexible

Interviews Flexibility of format (continued) Structure (continued) Semi-structured – questions and order are determined and followed Structured – questions and order are structured and interviewee’s responses are coded Totally structured – questions and order are structured and the interviewee chooses from among structured responses

Interviews Recording data Three common methods Transcribing tapes Notes and video taping during the interview Writing notes after the interview Tape record the interview Most effective due to fewer distractions during the interview Transcribing tapes Time and effort required Transcriptions become field notes

Interviews Guidelines for interviewing Listen more, talk less Follow up on what interviewees say and ask questions when you don’t understand Avoid leading questions by asking open-ended questions Don’t interrupt; learn to wait

Interviews Guidelines (continued) Keep interviewee focused Tolerate silence Don’t be judgmental about interviewee’s views or beliefs Don’t debate over interviewee’s responses

Threats to the Quality of Data Two sources of threats Observer bias – invalid information resulting from the perspective of the researcher Influence of an researcher’s background, personal experiences, preferences, attitudes, etc. Response set – tendency to see similar things Halo effect – initial impressions affect subsequent observations Observer’s knowledge of the participants affect the observation

Threats to the Quality of Data Two threats (continued) Observer effect – the impact of the observer’s participation on the setting or the participants Enhancing validity and reducing bias Validity – the extent to which the data accurately reflect the participant’s true perspectives and beliefs

Threats to the Quality of Data Enhancing validity and reducing bias Strategies Spend an extended time in the field Include additional participants to broaden representativeness of the study Obtain participant trust Recognize one’s own biases and preferences Work with another researcher and independently collect and compare data from subgroups

Threats to the Quality of Data Enhancing validity and reducing bias Strategies (continued) Allow participants to review and critique field notes and tape recordings Use verbatim accounts of observations and interviews Record one’s own reflections in a separate journal Examine unusual or contradictory results Triangulate using different data sources

Disengaging from the Field No simple rules beyond that of data saturation Gradually leaving is better than abruptly doing so

Data Collection for Qualitative Approaches Ethnography: observation, interviews, artifacts Grounded Theory: observation, interviews Action Research: observation, interviews, questionnaires, student artifacts

Data Collection for Qualitative Approaches Historical: Non-participatory nature of researcher’s role in historical studies Inanimate nature of data sources Print material - documents, books, journals, etc. Communications - notes, e-mail, memos, etc. Electronic media – recordings, tapes, videos, movies, photos, etc. Artifacts Oral histories – recollections of participants who experienced the situation being studied

Data Collection for Qualitative Approaches Historical: Importance of distinguishing primary and secondary sources Primary – firsthand information such as original documents, eyewitness accounts, etc. Secondary – secondhand information such as textbooks, newspaper reports, summaries, etc.