Egypt After Muh’d Ali – before Abdel Nasser

Egypt in % of population lived in the Nile valley -1920: 90% of the population of 13 mill was rural -90% + population Sunni Muslim; large Coptic community -70% worked in agriculture

Development Egypt maintained autonomous position within the Ottoman Empire after Muh’d Ali’s death (1848) Two sons ruled after Muh’d Ali  1863 Westernizing reforms continued within the state; growth of administration, European-style education Economy integrated into the international system as a plantation economy Infrastructure – railway from Alexandria to Cairo opened in 1852 – concession granted to Frenchman to build the Suez Canal

Foreign presence Massive foreign investment in Egypt  By 1872 about Europeans resided in Egypt Capitulations benefited European businesses; Europeans were free from taxation and jurisdiction of Egypt The European consuls were nearly autonomous Tension between educated Egyptian and privileged Europeans

Isma’il the Magnificent, Goal: to completely Europeanize Egypt as quickly as possible. “My country is now in Europe.” -Steps: -European-educated Egyptian elite; education massively expanded (even for girls!) -Legal reform; Mixed Courts, National Courts – based on European codes of law. European lawyers and judges dominated system. Shari’a only relevant for issues of personal status and waqf  ulama sidelined -No steps towards democratization, but did establish a consultative chamber in Promoted from governor to khedive (almost royalty); could expand army, issue currency, take foreign loans – more independence from Istanbul -Built boulevards and parks, European-style buildings, railways and port facilities

Suez Canal The canal cut the distance between London and Bombay in half. By 1881, more than 80% of the traffic through the canal was British

Opening ceremony Isma’il commissioned Verdi to compose an opera for the opening ceremony. Two years too late, Verdi finished his opera, Aida

How did Isma’il pay for this?

Plantation economy Land became a valuable asset  officials received land grants, made money and invested in more land  increase in the size of private landholdings Isma’il controlled 20% of the cultivated land in Egypt

Unstable cotton prices; drawback of mono-agriculture…

Loans Huge sums borrowed from European financial institutions Disaster; hidden charges, high interest rates  Desperate measures;  Egypt sold its 44% shares in the Suez Canal to the British government in 1875  New loans taken to pay interest on old loans  Landowners could pre-pay tax for 6 years and then never pay tax again

Bankruptcy and loss of independence 1876: Egypt declared bankrupt  Public Debt Commission established to protect foreign investors’ interests in Egypt  Direct European intervention in the financial affairs of Egypt Isma’il attempted to maintain his control  deposed by Sultan Abdul Hamid who appointed Isma’il’s son as khedive in 1879

Popular protest: The Urabi Revolt, Ahmad Urabi ; army officer of peasant origin - Led protest against European domination of Egyptian affairs -Sought to limit the khedive’s power by “establishing constitutional limits to his authority -Supported by the army, reformist notables and the peasants -Appointed Minister of War in Prepared to form a national assembly -Anti-foreign riots in Alexandria in 1882  pretext for the British to crush the Urabi movement  British troops sent in; Urabi’s army defeated, Urabi captured and sent to Ceylon and movement finished  British occupation until 1956!

British occupation British presence “undefined”; a “veiled protectorate” Objectives: safeguard the Suez Canal, restore Egypt’s stability and prevent French occupation Limited development towards political and economic independence Agricultural expansion: Aswan Dam completed in 1902; other canals repaired or excavated  large landowners profited Rise in standard of living in the countryside; taxes reduced, forced labor abolished Egypt nominally autonomous province within the Ottoman Empire, but administered by the British  frustrating situation for educated Egyptians

Education, press and opposition Educational policies regressive; education budget reduced – Tuition fees introduced at all levels  lower classes lost access to education The press flourished under the British occupation; journalists émigrés from the Ottoman Empire – Political, cultural and social issues debated – New ideas; protests; patriotism Dinshaway incident  brought peasants and urban nationalists together

One step forward, two steps back More reform-friendly commissioners , but Egyptian protests continued – The Constitutional Reform Party; Egyptian independence within an Islamic framework – The People’s Party; secular liberalism, cautious approach to independence – The National Party; immediate British evacuation 1914: Outbreak of WWI  Egypt declared a protectorate – Egypt the base for the British war effort in the Middle East during the war

Wafd and the Revolution of 1919 Wafd = delegation (to the Paris Peace Conference) to demand independence The British denied their request to go to Paris Popular support rallied for Wafd Leader: Sa’d Zaghlul Leadership arrested and exiled to Malta  nationwide riots, demonstrations, strikes

Egyptian “independence” Zaghlul and other Wafd leaders finally allowed to go to Paris Negotiations with the British about independence for two years – Wafd demands: Complete independence – British: Independence with “strings attached” 1922: Britain declared Egypt independent! – Protectorate terminated; Egyptian ruler king of independent country – BUT…

Anglo-Egyptian treaty Four limitations on the “independence”; Britain would remain responsible for – Imperial communications in Egypt – The defense of Egypt against foreign aggression or interference – The protection of foreign interests and foreign minorities – Sudan and its future status  British military presence, Capitulations still in place, Egypt did not control its own foreign policy

The “liberal experiment” 1923: Constitution 1924: Parliamentary elections – Wafd won 90%; Zaghlul PM Inefficient democracy – The king remained too powerful – British interference – Little consideration for the opposition – Continuous struggle for power among King, British and Wafd Treaty renegotiated in 1936; modified and signed by Wafd

Change of leaders; new voices emerging Zaghlul died in 1927 King Fuad died in 1936; succeeded by his son Faruq Politicians not in touch with the people; Europeanized elite vs. traditions Muslim Brotherhood founded in 1928; reaction against foreign-inspired regime and elite – Advocated for land reform, social welfare, workers’ demands for union protection and unemployment benefits – Established enterprises; weaving, transportation, construction – Founded school with curricula that combined Islamic studies with western education – Free medical clinics, soup kitchens

WW2 German attack on Egypt in the summer of Britain defeated Germany in North Africa in the spring of Egypt the “pivot of [the British] Mediterranean defense” Limited import  industrial development February 4 th incident: the British forced King Faruq to appoint a Wafd PM. – Showed British control over politics in Egypt – Egypt’s democracy a mockery – The king was humilitated – The Wafd was compromised as the nationalist party