TOPIC 1 SYSTEMS AND MODELS (5 Hours) HIRAM BINGHAM The British International School of Lima 1

IB Material Calculations TOK Link ICT Link 2

1.1.1 Concept and characteristics of a system A system is a collection of well-organized and well-integrated elements with perceptible attributes which establish relationships among them within a defined space delimited by a boundary which necessarily transforms energy for its own functioning. An ecosystem is a dynamic unit whose organized and integrated elements transform energy which is used in the transformation and recycling of matter in an attempt to preserve its structure and guarantee the survival of all its component elements. Although we tend to isolate systems by delineating the boundaries, in reality such boundaries may not be exact or even real. Furthermore, one system is always in connection with another system with which it exchanges both matter and energy. TOK Link: Does this hold true for the Universe?TOK Link: Does this hold true for the Universe? 3

E 1 E 2 E 3 Boundary Elements Relationships Systems A System B System C 4

A natural system = Ecosystem 5

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1.1.2 Types of systems (1) 7

1.1.2 Types of systems (2) 8

1.1.2 Types of systems (3) Open System Energy Energy System System Matter Matter Matter Matter It exchanges both energy and matter. 9

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1.1.4 Laws of Thermodynamics 1 st Law of Thermodynamics1 st Law of Thermodynamics conservation of energyThe first law is concerned with the conservation of energy and states that “energy can not be created nor destroyed but it is transformed from one form into another”. * In any process where work is done, there has been an energy transformation. With no energy transformation there is no way to perform any type of work. All systems carry out work, therefore all systems need to transform energy to work and be functional. 11

Photosynthesis and the First Law of Thermodynamics Heat Energy Light Energy Chemical Energy Photosynthesis 12

The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics The second law explains the dissipation of energy (as heat energy) that is then not available to do work, bringing about disorder. The Second Law is most simply stated as, “in any isolated system entropy tends to increase spontaneously”. This means that energy and materials go from a concentrated to a dispersed form (the capacity to do work diminishes) and the system becomes…increasingly disordered. 13

The Second Law of Thermodynamics in numbers: The 10% Law For most ecological process, the amount of energy that is passed from one trophic level to the next is on average 10%. Heat Heat Heat 900 J 90 J 9 J Energy 1 Process 1 Process 2 Process J 100 J 10 J 1 J J = Joule SI Unit of Energy 1kJ = 1 Kilo Joule = 1000 Joules 14

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1.1.5 The Steady State steady stateThe steady state is a common property of most open systems in nature whereby the system state fluctates around a certain point without much change of its fundamental identity. Static equilibrium means no change at all. Dynamic equilibrium means a continuous move from one point to another with the same magnitude, so no net change really happens. Living systems (e.g. the human body, a plant, a population of termites, a community of plants, animals and decomposers in the Tropical Rainforest) neither remain static nor undergo harmonic fluctuations, instead living systems fluctuate almost unpredictably but always around a mid value which is called the “steady state”. 16

STATE OF THE SYSTEM TIME Static Equilibrium Dynamic Equilibrium Steady State 17

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1.1.6 Positive and Negative Feedback Mechanisms Natural systems should be understood as “super-organisms” whose component elements react against disturbing agents in order to preserve the steady state that guarantees the integrity of the whole system. The reaction of particular component elements of the systems againts disturbing agents is consider a feedback mechanism. Feedback links involve time lags since responses in ecosystems are not immediate! 19

Positive Feedback Positive feedbackPositive feedback leads to increasing change in a system. Positive feedbackPositive feedback amplifies or increases change; it leads to exponential deviation away from an equilibrium. For example, due to Global Warming high temperatures increase evaporation leading to more water vapour in the atmosphere. Water vapour is a greenhouse gas which traps more heat worsening Global Warming. In positive feedback, changes are reinforced. This takes ecosystems to new positions. Atmosphere Oceans Sun Water Vapour Global Warming HeatEnergy Evaporation 20

Negative Feedback Negative feedbackNegative feedback is a self-regulating method of control leading to the maintenance of a steady state equilibrium. Negative feedbackNegative feedback counteracts deviations from the steady state equilibrium point. Negative feedbackNegative feedback tends to damp down, neutralise or counteract any deviation from an equilibrium, and promotes stability. Population of Hare Population of Lynx + - In this example, when the Hare population increases, the Lynx population increases too in response to the increase in food offer which illustrates both Bottom-Up regulation and Positive Feedback. However, when the Lynx population increases too much, the large number of lynxes will pray more hares reducing the number of hares. As hares become fewer, some lynxes will die of starvation regulating the number of lynx in the population. This illustrates both Top-Down and negative Feedback regulation. - 21

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1.1.7 Transfer and Transformation Processes TransfersTransfers normally flow through a system from one compartment to another and involve a change in location. For example, precipitation involves the change in location of water from clouds to sea or ground. Similarly, liquid water in the soil is transferred into the plant body through roots in the same liquid form. TransformationsTransformations lead to an interaction within a system in the formation of a new end product, or involve a change of state. For example, the evaporation of sea water involves the absorption of heat energy from the air so it can change into water vapour. In cell respiration, carbon in glucose changes to carbon in carbon dioxide. Ammonia (NH 3 ) in the soil are absorbed by plant roots and in the plant nitrates are transformed into Amino acids. During photosynthesis carbon in the form of CO 2 is changed into carbon in the form of Glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ).These are just some example of transformations. 23

1.1.8 Flows and Storages FlowsinputsoutputsFlows are the inputs and outputs that come in and out between component elements in a system. This inputs and outputs can be of energy or quantities of specific substances (e.g. CO 2 or H 2 O). Storagesstocks reservoirsStorages or stocks are the quantities that remain in the system or in any of its component elements called reservoirs. For example, in the Nitrogen Cycle, the soil stores nitrates (stock) (NO 3 - ) however some nitrates are taken away as such by run-off water and absorbed by plant roots (output flows) but at the same time rainfall brings about nitrates, human fertilization and the transformation of ammonia (NH 3 ) in to nitrates maintain the nitrate stock in soil constant under ideal conditions. 24

Transfer, transformation, flows and storages (A qualitative model) 25

Transfer, transformation, flows and storages 26

Transfer, transformation, flows and storages 27

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1.1.9 Quantitative Models modelA model is an artificial construction designed to represent the properties, behaviour or relationships between individual parts of the real entity being studied y order to study it under controlled conditions and to make predictions about its functioning when one or more elements and /or conditions are changed. modelA model is a representation of a part of the real world which helps us in ex situ studies. For example, the Carbon Cycle on the next slide is a quantitative model showing how carbon flows from one compartment to another in our planet. The width of the arrows are associated to the amount of carbon that is flowing. Figures next or on top of arrows indicate the amount of carbon in the flow. Similarly, figures inside boxes of compartments show the stocks or storages of carbon in each compartment. 29

A quantitative model (The Carbon Cycle) 30

1.10 Strengths and Limitations of Models A model is a representation of part or the totality of a reality made by human beings with the hope that models can help us (i) represent the structural complexity of the reality in a simpler way eliminating unnecessary elements that create confusions, (ii) understand processes which are difficult to work out with the complexity of the real world, (iii) assess multiple interaction individually and as a whole (iv) predict the behaviour of a system within the limitations imposed by the simplification accepted as necessary for the sake of the understanding. Models are simplifications of real systems. They can be used as tools to better understand a system and to make predictions of what will happen to all of the system components following a disturbance or a change in any one of them. The human brain cannot keep track of an array of complex interactions all at one time, but it can easily understand individual interactions one at a time. By adding components to a model one by one, we develop an ability to consider the whole system together, not just one interaction at a time. Models are hypotheses. They are proposed representations of how a system is structured, which can be rejected in light of contradictory evidence. No model is a 'perfect' representation of the system because, as mentioned above, all models are simplifications and in some cases needed over simplifications. Moreover, human subjectivity may lead to humans to make models biased by scholar background, disregard of the relevance of some components or simply by a limited perception or understanding of the reality which is to be modeled. 31