Jeff Elison, Ph.D., Stephanie Hilwig, Ph.D., Ben Waddell, Ph.D., Justine Brydges Adams State University

1. To explain previously observed sex differences in use of different shame- coping styles 2. Specifically, to explore the roles of gender socialization and gender differences in socially desirable responding – as mediators between sex and coping

 Gender differences observed in shame and shame-coping: Females generally report higher levels of shame than males (Ferguson, Eyre, & Ashbaker, 2000) Females higher on internalizing styles of Attack Self and Withdrawal (Elison et al. multiple studies) Females = Males on externalizing style of Attack Other  Why? Must acknowledge shame (F+) and anger (F-)

 SDR: Two Types: Impression Management (IM): efforts to make a “desired” impression of one’s self in interpersonal domains (MRT; moralistic response tendency)  Females > Males (Heine & Lehman, 1995; Lalwani et al., 2006; Paulhus, 1991) Self-Deceiving Enhancement (SDE): efforts to make a “desired” impression in agency-related domains such as autonomy, status (ERT; egoistic response)  Males > Females (Heine & Lehman, 1995; Lalwani et al., 2006; Paulhus, 1991)

 SDR: measurement error or stable attribute of personality? (Steenkamp, Jong, & Baumgartner, 2010; Tourangeau & Yan, 2007) Attack Self  conscious acknowledgment & magnification of faults Withdrawal  conscious acknowledgment of faults SDE  minimize faults Therefore, SDE a part of stable coping styles; less SDE  more shame, AS, WD Thus, females > males on shame, AS, WD

 SDR: measurement error or stable attribute of personality? (Steenkamp et al., 2010) Attack Other  denial of faults and externalization of blame and anger SDE  minimize faults Therefore, less SDE (females)  more shame, AO IM  look good (interpersonal; minimize anger) Therefore, more IM (females)  less AO Thus, males = females on AO

 Shame is gendered in that boys and girls learn to feel shame about different things (Ferguson et al., 2000)  Shame-coping is gendered in that boys and girls learn to cope with shame differently (Tangney & Dearing, 2002)  SDR is gendered in that boys learn to favor SDE and girls learn to favor IM (Steenkamp et al., 2010)

Sex Attack Other Withdrawal Attack Self F > M M = F

Sex Attack Other Withdrawal Attack Self F > M M = F Gender Roles M > F

Sex Attack Other Withdrawal Attack Self F > M M = F Gender Roles M > F Self- Deceptive Enhance M > F +

Sex Gender Roles Self- Deceptive Enhance Attack Other Withdrawal Attack Self M > F + F > M M > F F > M

Sex Gender Roles Impression Mgmt M > F F > M Attack Other Withdrawal Attack Self F > M M = F

Sex Gender Roles Impression Mgmt Attack Other M > F + F > M Attack Other Withdrawal Attack Self F > M M < F

Sex Gender Roles Impression Mgmt Self- Deceptive Enhance Attack Other Withdrawal Attack Self M > F + + F > M M = F M > F F > M

 N = 175 college students  47% women; 53% men  Age: M = 20.62, SD = 4.78  White, non-Hispanic = 55%; Hispanic = 33%

 Measures: Compass of Shame Scale (Elison et al., 2006)  48 items – 4 subscales w/ 12 items each  Rated on frequency of use  Example: When I feel others think poorly of me: I soothe myself with distractions. (AV;.69) I think of myself as flawed. (AS;.92) I want to be alone. (WD;.88) I get angry at other people. (AO;.87)

 Measures: Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR; Paulhus, 1991)  24 items (abbr); 12 SDE, 12 IM  SDE: Example: “It’s all right with me if some people happen to dislike me.”  Cronbach’s alpha:.57  IM: Example: “I always obey laws, even if I’m unlikely to get caught.”  Cronbach’s alpha:.72 Hyper-Gender Scale (modified Hypermasculinity Index; Mosher & Sirkin, 1984)  22 items.  Example: “A man loses respect when he backs down from a fight.”  Cronbach’s alpha:.88

Sex Hyper- Gender Impression Mgmt Self- Deceptive Enhance Attack Other Withdrawal Attack Self M > F, d = 1.23 F > M, d =.43 M > F, d =.57 F > M, d =.48 F > M, d =.52 M = F, d =.07 Note. All differences significant at p <.01, except Attack Other.

Sex Hyper- Gender Impression Mgmt Self- Deceptive Enhance Attack Other Withdrawal Attack Self (males higher) Fit: X 2 (8, N=167) = 32.40, p <.01; RMSEA = 0.00; CFI = 1.00 (with 4 covariance paths)

 Results strongly supported hypotheses: 1) All predicted sex differences observed 2) Gender roles and SDR fully mediate between sex and shame-coping styles 3) Attack Other: A.Females lower SDE  more shame & AO B.Females greater IM  less anger C.Thus, females = males

 For better or worse, males and females are socialized to adopt disparate gender roles: 1) encompass self-deception, impression management, and shame-coping 2) shame-coping styles have been related to psychopathology and violence 3) as a result of the expectations associated with traditional gender roles, females appear to pay a higher price: a)greater shame, lower self-esteem (via lower SDE) b)poorer psychological well-being (via AS and WD)