CHAPTER 7: Self and Moral Development: Middle Childhood Through Early Adolescence The Life Span: Human Development for Helping Professionals Edition 4 Patricia C. Broderick and Pamela Blewitt © (2015, 2010, 2006) by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Self and Moral Development: Middle Childhood—Early Adolescence Behaving in accordance with moral values (honesty, dependability, kindness, fairness, respect, helpfulness, responsibility, self-control, truthfulness, diligence) is widely agreed to make the world a better place Specifics of values subject to more disagreement Self concept Acquiring moral sense is critical for self-concept Central to successful adult functioning

Development of Self Concept Self-concept constrained cognitive development Multidimensional self-system is dynamic and changes throughout development Preschool age: Begin to describe themselves Early-elementary age: Organizing characteristics of “me-self” into coherent categories Middle childhood, early adolescence: Abstract trait-like concepts of self, multiple domains Social comparison builds on perspective taking – as children mature, peer evals are more important; Children’s self-appraisals become more congruent with others’ appraisals as they get older

Structure of Self Concept Self-concept and self-esteem are separate but closely intertwined Self-esteem is our feelings about ourselves Self assessments of specific competencies, and generalized perception of themselves Children’s general self-concept divided into domains Academic self-concept Subdivided by subject areas, math, science, etc. Nonacademic self-concept Subdivided into social, emotional, physical

Influences on the Development of Self-Concept Global self-esteem dependent on competence in areas of personal importance Large discrepancies between perceived adequacy & importance are associated with depression & anxiety Influenced by social processes Internalizing the assessments of others Social comparison Tend to be motivated by a self-enhancing bias – motivation to maintain moderately positive beliefs about self

Generally, children tend to make comparisons with other children who resemble them in some important ways, however, when their own self-esteem is at stake, children will make “downward” social comparisons by comparing themselves to less competent or less successful peers Those with low self-esteem are more susceptible to external cues that carry evaluative messages & are more reactive to social feedback – reluctant to call attention to themselves, more cautious, more self-protective Those with high self-esteem demonstrate more self-enhancement strategies & are more likely to call attention to themselves

Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Self-Esteem Differences in North America Older views that marginalized groups have lower self-esteem is not supported by current research Strong and positive racial or ethnic identity correlates positively with global self-esteem, especially for African Americans – maternal support & acceptance are key in academic achievement & global self-esteem Small but stable gender difference in self-esteem favoring males, little evidence of self-esteem slide for girls Great within-group variation

Physical appearance is powerfully associated with overall or global self-esteem (r = .70 - .80) from middle childhood on Those considered physically attractive may be getting a consistently larger number of positive reflected appraisals with which to construct the self Beginning in early adolescence, girls report more dissatisfaction with their appearance & bodies than boys of the same age – cultural emphasis may contribute

Gender & Self-Esteem Self worth varies with “level of voice” for both genders – there is increased self-worth when one feels he/she can express him/herself For both genders, self-esteem begins to decline in late childhood, levels off in late adolescence, & begins a slow, moderate climb in young adulthood, peaking in the sixth decade of life & then declining again Girls’ self-esteem drops more in late childhood than boys’ – small, but significant difference until late adulthood Gender gaps in self-esteem for specific competency areas appear in early elementary school & favor girls in some domains (e.g. language arts) & boys in other domains (e.g. sports)

Cross-Cultural Differences in the Development of the Self Construction of the self is a social process Cultural differences in beliefs, values, expectations Individualistic cultures value independence more than collectivist cultures Individualist cultures value being proud of oneself, more central to self-esteem Collectivist cultures value harmonious relationships, more central to self-esteem Parenting practices reflect these cultural values Affects of negative self-evaluation vary depending on cultural values and norms

Deceits in Our Thinking About Self Page 158 in The Reciprocating Self I am what I have I am what I do or achieve I am what other people say about me Remember the goals of gracing, empowering, covenant, & intimacy in relationships? We should reinforce for each child his/her essential belovedness as treasured by God. Shaming messages mirror failure & rejection.

The Moral Self Acquiring moral values is an important element of self-development Elements of morality Capacity to make judgments of right vs. wrong Preferring to act in ways judged to be right Morality requires three elements to be present – emotions, cognitions & behavior - these are interwoven (become more syncronized with age), but do not always work together in perfect harmony. Moral conduct is often situational & not determined by moral reasoning for both adults and children.

Classic Theories of Moral Development Freud’s psychoanalytic theory – not resrch supported Inborn impulses of the id are entirely self-serving Superego emerges in preschool period (identification with the same gendered parent) Source of moral emotions (pride, shame, guilt) Psychodynamic – conscience is a function of attachment & the need to keep a parent close Piaget and Kohlberg propose cognitive theories - stages in moral reasoning(p. 260, table 7.3) Piaget: premoral, heteronomous, autonomous Kohlberg: preconventional, conventional, postconventional

Criticisms of Cognitive Theories Criticized as being too simplistic – reasoning doesn’t always match behavior; Also, children consider matters of fairness even at ages when Kohlberg’s scheme would assume they would not (e.g. try to explain their selfish behavior) – tend to underestimate the young Gilligan argued that moral development follows gendered trajectories – males are more likely to use a justice focus (morality of justice), while females are more likely to use a caring focus (morality of caring) The cognitive theories do not distinguish between moral, conventional, and personal rules (p. 262)

Support for Cognitive Theories Consistent with Piaget’s views, when judging moral culpability, young children attend to consequences, while older children pay attention to intentions The roles of perspective taking & peer interactions in the growth of moral reasoning skills (emphasized by both Piaget & Kohlberg) have been supported

Children’s Prosocial Behavior Prosocial behavior or altruism is to act in ways that intended to benefit someone else Tends to increase with age Individual differences stable across age Multiple factors contribute to prosocial behavior Emotion: Empathy (“feeling with” another), sympathy (“feeling for” another) Cognition: Needs-based reasoning, weighing own needs against those of others – rooted in values Temperament and personality: Social competence (popularity), assertiveness (help without being asked), positive global self concept, control of self-focused emotions Parenting practices and peer relationships

Children’s Antisocial Behavior Antisocial behavior distinguished by intent to harm or injure another or disregard for the harm Includes physical, verbal, or social aggression Instrumental aggression: Using force or threat to obtain possession Person-directed, social, or relational aggression: Behavior aimed at damaging peer relationships Overall and instrumental aggression decreases with age, nature of aggression more social Includes risky sexual activity, substance abuse, defiance, stealing, cheating, lying, vandalism Social information-processing plays a key role Hostile attributional bias; anger & self-protection

Risk Factors for Antisocial Behavior 1. Physiological & neuropsychological hormones – high testosterone levels attention deficits & impulsivity weaknesses in verbal skills & problem solving abilities & ability to cope, understand consequences & take others’ perspectives (impacted by prenatal terratogens, early deprivation, & heritability) 2. Environment Distal influences (e.g. SES, low educational level of parents) Proximal influences (e.g. parenting practices – history of coercive interactions, caving into demands; substance abuse, teen parenting, frequent moves, gang involvement, exposure to violence)

Morality as an Educational Goal Historically central to formal education, periodic surges in interest based on social concerns Many packaged programs available to teachers, but difficult to implement, little evidence moral training has an impact Recent positive results for character education Programs need clear goals and sound techniques for implementing goals; based on shared values Can be effective in encouraging aspects of moral thinking, feeling, and behavior The school should be caring & respectful community Continuing concern and criticism around programs

Applications: Self-esteem as Cause or Consequence A strong sense of self-worth and a sturdy moral compass are widely viewed as important for participating in a civil society Self-esteem touted as holy grail of mental health Low self-esteem is a correlate of mental health problems, not necessarily causal No compelling evidence that high self-esteem is precursor for competence More evidence competent performance results in high self-efficacy Evidence argues for shift to “skills-first” approach

Applications: Where Do We Start? Self-worth resides inside us but depends on appraisals of significant others Create a supportive counseling relationship, with empathy, encouragement, respect, and interest Target skills and awareness that lead to increased social self-efficacy Help children generate interpretations, solutions to problems, increase perspective-taking skills Help parents understand the powerful looking glass their words create Substantive changes do not happen overnight

Applications: Putting Flesh on the Bones Moral development is not just moral reasoning, also involves emotional understanding Morality composed of three interlocking systems: Empathy Identification with moral others Principles or standards of right and wrong How do these systems develop? Empathy develops through caring relationships Identification develops with exposure to caring and just models (authoritative; induction) Principles and standards evolve through exposure to ideas in school, home, counseling, friendships Sense of purpose, competence & moral growth – sharpened by meaningful service to others

Focus on Developmental Psychopathology: Conduct Problems Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) or conduct disorder (CD) diagnosed in children, adolescents Diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder (APD) typically reserved for adults Different pathways of antisocial behavior Life-course persistent (LCP), antisocial behavior begins early, persists, diversifies, grows serious Adolescence-limited (AL), difficult or exaggerated reaction in adolescent period Emphasis on prevention and early intervention Some oppositional behavior normal in young children – should recede by 8 years of age

Focus on Developmental Psychopathology: When Should a Parent Seek Help? When child refuses to do what parent asks them to do 8 out of 10 times When a teacher or day care provider reports child has a problem with aggression toward peers, has difficulty making friends When parents feel they aren’t successful in helping child reduce aggression When child has developmental problems making it difficult for him or her to learn social skills

Treatments Multidimensional, targeting individual, family, educational & peer-related contexts Group settings are counter-therapeutic Multisystemic Therapy (MST; Henggeler, Mihalic, Rone, Thomas, & Timmons-Mitchell, 1998) – provides family based services for adolescent offenders at risk for out of home incarceration The Incredible Years (IY; Webster-Stratton et al., 2001) – prevention program for at-risk children ages 2 to 10 & their families that is intended to prevent conduct problems before they take root; programs for parents, children & teachers; adopted in pre-schools & elementary schools

Applications - Summary Enhance competencies & awareness that indirectly bolster self-esteem; Value one’s competencies Improve coping skills, reduce anxiety; Introduce new ways of interpreting social situations; Change distorted thinking & (possibly) schemas Reduce levels of reactivity - breathing or distraction Practice appropriate social behavior & emotional expression Increase the generalizability of treatment effects by using real peer situations (access “hot” cognitions) Take personal responsibility for actions & choose internally motivated goals when possible Discourage excessive competition and overreliance on social comparison