What is an “argument”? Anger: Fight or quarrel Debate: Pro and con Programming:  A parameter is a variable which takes on the meaning of a corresponding argument passed in a call to a subroutine.subroutine  Although parameters are also commonly referred to as arguments, arguments are more properly the actual values or references assigned to the parameter variables when the subroutine is called at runtime.argumentsruntime

An argument isn't just contradiction. It can be. No it can't. An argument is a connected series of statements intended to establish a proposition. No it isn't. Yes it is! It's not just contradiction. Look, if I argue with you, I must take up a contrary position. Yes, but that's not just saying 'No it isn't.' Yes it is! No it isn't! Argument is an intellectual process. Contradiction is just the automatic gainsaying of any statement the other person makes. No it isn't. It is.

Arguments can be explicit or implicit Implicit:  Describe a photograph that would create an implicit argument persuading The general public toward banning handguns The general public against banning handguns Advertising Psychology, communication

Explicit Argument Requires Justification of it’s claims  Recall the Monty Python Argument clinic skit  An argument?  Argument is an intellectual process. Contradiction is just the automatic gainsaying of any statement the other person makes.

Truth seeking + persuasion Exploratory Essay Inquiry: Think out loud Dialog: seeking common ground Classical Argument aimed as skeptic One-sided: preaching to the choir Aggressive one-sided Political rally Propaganda

Reading Arguments 5 strategies Read as a believer Read as a doubter Explore how the rhetorical context and genre are shaping the argument. Seek alternative views and analyze sources of disagreements Use disagreement productively to prompt further investigation

Read as a believer Empathetic listening Suspend your doubt when summarizing Give the other side it’s BEST shot  Don’t be afraid to offer positive examples etc. “What you are trying to say is…”  Say it in such a way that THEY agree that is what they said  Make implicit assumptions explicit  THEN proceed to argue

Read as a believer E.g CS needs a code of ethics (or not). Cyberethics does NOT introduce new ethical issues.  Evidence?  Best example?

Read as a doubter Seek not the answers, but to understand the QUESTIONS List assumptions, and challenge Categorize counter-examples (and support) Focus on key terminology that  reveals bias  too strong  Loaded (value laden, ideology, etc.)

Rhetorical context and Genre Personal correspondence Letter to editor Op-ed Niche magazine (e.g. Beginner’s Guides) Scholarly journal White papers Proposals Legal briefs Advocacy Advertisement Blogs, forums Visual argument Speech

Questions to ask What is the authors interests / investment? Who is the audience? What is motivating the writing? What genre? What info about the publication helps explain the angle?

Seeking Alternative Views Disagreement about facts  Global warming? Disagreement about Values  Ethics? Politics? Religion?

Using disagreements productively Accept ambiguity or uncertainty  Consider synthesis as a solution  Describe as a dilemma You have 2 (or more) choices You MUST make a choice ALL of your choices stink Sources, References for facts / data  Statistics  Studies  Context of data

Sources, facts, data Statistics, Studies Stories Testimony / witness Memory Evidence  Physical  Analogical / Model  Circumstantial (indirect – inference from another fact)  Opinions  Description, analysis, decomposition, logic?

Consider ways to synthesize views Define YOUR values Reader Response Theory  recognizes the reader as an active agent who imparts "real existence" to the work and completes its meaning through interpretation. (no meaning w/out reader – if a tree falls…)  Reader-response criticism argues that literature should be viewed as a performing art in which each reader creates his or her own, possibly unique, text-related performance.  It stands in total opposition to the theories of formalism and the New Criticism, in which the reader's role in re-creating literary works is ignored (meaning is objective).formalismNew Criticism  There is NO authoritative or privileged interpretation Take a 3 rd position that reconciles two sides Provide multiple or hypothetical resolutions