Important Popes, Encyclicals and Church Councils

Important Ancient Popes Peter (Simon): One of Jesus’ 12 apostles; named by Jesus as 1 st head of church; married; martyred in Rome in mid-60s AD by Emperor Nero; crucified upside down, buried on Vatican Hill outside city of Rome (today, St. Peter’s Basilica is built overtop his tomb) Calixtus: Thief who became Pope in 200s AD; known for mercy toward apostates. Martyred. Hippolytus: First Anti-Pope (false Pope). Opposed Calixtus, did not believe in forgiving apostates and other sinners. Later, repented of his opposition to Calixtus. Martyred. Both he and Calixtus are saints. Leo the Great: One of only two Popes with title “great.” Convinced Attila the Hun not to sack city of Rome in 400s AD. Wrote a letter (Tome of Leo) to bishops meeting at Council of Chalcedon, defending that Jesus was BOTH fully human and fully divine. In this letter, first Pope to claim he was head of the church because of apostolic succession back to St. Peter. Gregory the Great: Second Pope to be called “great.” Started as a Benedictine monk. In about 600 AD, sent Benedictine monks into England, Germany and other parts of Europe to start new Benedictine monasteries and convert the pagans. Also promoted a type of church music known as “Gregorian Chant.”

Important Renaissance Popes Alexander VI: One of the most corrupt and immoral Popes, “elected” to papacy in 1492 through bribery. He then promoted his children to high church offices. He was head of the powerful Borgia family of Spain, and chose the name Alexander because he admired Alexander the Great. His son, Cesare Borgia, ruthlessly assassinated his father’s enemies. His daughter, Lucrezia Borgia, reportedly carried poison in her ring to kill her father’s enemies. Julius II: Corrupt and immoral Pope who came shortly after Alexander VI, who was his bitter enemy. He thought of himself as Julius Caesar and dressed as a soldier, leading papal armies on horseback as “soldier-pope.” He hired Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel and design a new St. Peter’s Basilica, because the old church was crumbling.

Important Modern Popes (1) Pius IX: Mid- and late 1800s. Longest reigning elected Pope. Started out as a progressive Pope, but became more conservative and cynical as Italian nationalists threatened Rome and seized the Papal States. Wrote the Syllabus of Errors, denouncing modern ideas from the Enlightenment Age of Reason. Convened the First Vatican Council (Vatican I), which approved the doctrine of Papal Infallibility. John XXIII: An older, chubby, jolly Italian elected as Pope in He surprised the world by convening Second Vatican Council (Vatican II) from 1961 to 1963, in order to modernize the church by “opening the windows” (aggiornamento) to let in fresh air.

Important Modern Popes (2) Paul VI: Continued Vatican II after John XXIII died midway. Also known for his encyclical, Humanae Vitae, which banned the use of artificial contraception. John Paul I: Died suddenly after 33 days. John Paul II: Second-longest reigning elected Pope (after Pius IX). From Poland, was first non-Italian Pope in centuries. Chose name to honor his immediate predecessors. Very personable (actor) and athletic (skier), but also very conservative, condemning many priests and theologians for being too liberal. Survived assassination attempt as he opposed communism and helped bring about the fall of the Soviet Union. Traveled extensively around the world. Started World Youth Day. Died of Parkinson’s Disease and showed world how to die with dignity.

Important Modern Popes (3) Benedict XVI: Very conservative right-hand advisor to John Paul II, who led the condemnation of many priests and theologians for being too liberal. Chose name to honor St. Benedict, father of Western Monasticism. Surprised world by resigning papacy in 2013 – first Pope to resign in about 500 years. Francis I: Current Pope. First non-European Pope every, from Argentina, and first Jesuit Pope. Chose name to based on St. Francis of Assisi, who was devoted to the poor.

Important Papal Writings & Encyclicals (1) Tome of Leo: Pope Leo the Great’s Letter to bishops at Council of Chalcedon, and first used to promote Papal Primacy over all other bishops as head of the Catholic Church, because of “apostolic succession” inherited from St. Peter. Pope Urban II’s Speech: Launches Crusades, 1100s Unam Sanctum: In about 1300, Pope says there is no salvation outside the Catholic Church, and unless there is full allegiance and obedience to the Pope.

Important Papal Writings & Encyclicals (1) Papal Infallibility: Dogma that Pope cannot make an error when speaking “ex cathedra” (in his official role as Pope) on issues of faith or morality. Rerum Novarum: Encyclical in 1890s that defends the poor, especially the right of workers to unionize and enjoy protections from abuse by greedy factory owners. Lateran Treaty: Agreement between Pius XI and Italian fascist dictator Benito Mussolini in 1929 to create Vatican City as an independent nation/city- state inside Rome. Humanae Vitae: Encyclical in 1968 that extolled virtues of marriage and condemned extra-marital sex and use of artificial contraception because main purpose of marriage is procreation. Laudato Si: Pope Francis’ recent encyclical on the dangers of global warming and the need to protect the environoment.

Important Writings of U.S. Bishops

Important Writings of U.S. Bishops, continued

Important Church Councils Jerusalem: Allowed Gentiles into church without circumcision or following other strict Jewish Laws. Around 55 AD. Nicaea: Convened by Emperor Constantine to unify Christianity. Defined “orthodoxy” by creating Nicene Creed, which affirmed God as a Trinity and Jesus as Second Person of the Trinity. Chalcedon: Further clarified Council of Nicea, in 400s AD, by affirming that Jesus was BOTH fully human and fully divine. Pope Leo the Great wrote his famous Tome of Leo to the bishops at this council. Trent: Council following Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation. It condemned most Protestant beliefs, reaffirmed Catholic beliefs and teachings, and made some reforms in the Catholic Church to control misuse of indulgences and to mandate seminary training for priests. Vatican I: Pius IX’s council in 1870 that approved dogma of Papal Infallibility. Vatican II: Most recent church council, 1963 to 1965, convened by John XXIII and concluded by Paul VI. It modernized church in modern world.

Church Councils

15 Overview of Church Councils A Church Council is a MEETING of all bishops. A Council today is convened by the Pope. In the past, others have convened Councils. A Council’s decisions are binding on all Catholics. There have been 21 Church Councils in church history, not counting the Council of Jerusalem. Councils resolve conflicts or settle issues of belief and practice within the Catholic Church. The most recent was the SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL, 1962 to The council before that was the FIRST VATICAN COUNCIL, 1869 to BIG HISTORY PROJECT / UNIT # / UNIT TITLE

First crisis of the early Church : Should the Gentiles (non-Jews) be accepted into the Church? Must they also become Jewish and follow the law of Moses? (see Exodus 21:17 for an example of very strict Jewish law) Council of Jerusalem ( Acts 15)- set the stage for opening Christianity’s doors to those of any nationality or culture

Arius Arius lost the battle. Arius died of a severe case of diarrhea while on his way to accept the teachings of the Council of Nicaea. Some believe he was poisoned by his enemies. The icon on the left shows Arius in a latrine as he dies of diarrhea.

After the Council of Nicaea… Three other Church Councils refined the teachings of Nicaea. The most important was the Council of Chalcedon, 451 A.D. At this Council, the bishops affirmed that Jesus was “one person” but with 2 distinct natures – human nature & divine nature. Pope Leo the Great wrote his famous “Tome” to the bishops meeting at Chalcedon. In the Tome, he asserted Papal Primacy/Leadership of the Church – because of “apostolic succession” – “Peter speaks through Leo!”

Church Councils of the 4 th and 5 th centuries

Lateran IV Pope Innocent III - November 1215 Most important council of the Middle Ages First use of term “transubstantiation” – that bread and wine are transformed into the real Body and Blood of Christ during the consecration during Mass by the priest. Requires the faithful to receive communion once each year at Easter. Required the faithful to go to confession at least once a year. Created “seal of confessional” – that a priest could not reveal what another person had confessed to him during the sacrament of reconciliation (or confession) Passed various anti-Jewish (anti-Semitic) laws. Jews had to wear a yellow badge. Dominican priests and brothers were sent to preach in synagogues Instituted Inquisition as a way to fight against heresies.

Constance (1414 to 1418) Ended Great Western Schism of 3 competing popes. Formally declared that church councils were the supreme authority in the Church (over even the Pope!), and mandated that church councils meet on a regular basis. This is known as CONCILIARISM – the idea that a council has more authority over the church than even the Pope. Condemned Bohemian priest-reformer Jon Hus as a heretic and burned him at the stake.

Jan Hus Catholic priest in early 1400s, before the time of Martin Luther, who lived in Bohemia (modern Czechoslovakia) and who wanted to reform church. He was accused of heresy and asked to defend himself at Council of Constance. The emperor promised him safety. Once at the Council, the promise of safety was withdrawn and he was burned at the stake. Bohemia erupted in protest. For many years, Catholicism suffered huge losses of membership there.

Council of Trent Paul III & Pius IV- Dec 1545 to Dec 1563 Five popes More dogmatic decrees than any other council. THIS COUNCIL WAS IN RESPONSE TO MARTIN LUTHER AND THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION. It did 2 main things: (1)reaffirmed Catholic teachings and practices, while condemning Protestant teachings and practices; and (1)reformed corruption and abuses within the Catholic Church, and initiated many other positive changes. CONTINUED ON NEXT SLIDE

Trent, cont... Bible may not be interpreted in a way that contradicts the doctrine of the church or the consent of the clergy Baptism wipes out stain of Original Sin Declares that Christ instituted all seven sacraments Reaffirms and elaborates doctrine of transubstantiation Directs that the bodies of martyrs are to be venerated by the faithful; promoted veneration of Mary and saints Requires novitiate for religious orders Declares Purgatory exists and the souls therein can be helped by the offerings of the faithful Established first seminaries Warned Catholics against association with Protestants Outlawed Catholic marriages with Protestants Created an index of forbidden books Articulated official Catholic teaching on faith and grace and differentiated this teaching from Protestant thought

First Vatican Council (Vatican I) Pope Pius IX - December 1869 to July 1870 Doctrine of infallibility: Vote was – about 55 were absent; some fled Many bishops left Rome rather than vote - especially Americans Does not adjourn but bishops flee Rome as Garibaldi’s Italian nationalists camp at city’s edge The Papal States cease to exist, becoming a part of new nation of Italy; Pope locks himself inside Vatican as “prisoner”

Pope John 23rd and Vatican II In 1958, an elderly cardinal, Angelo Roncalli, age 76, was elected as “good Pope John XXIII” – warm, funny, gentle. He was seen as an elderly care-taker Pope, not a reformer. In 1959, John XXIII surprised the world by announcing the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II), which ran from 1962 to John XXIII died in 1963, as Vatican II was beginning. The next Pope, Paul VI, concluded Vatican II. John envisioned that Vatican II would be an “aggiorniamento” – Italian for “opening the windows to let in fresh air,” an “updating” and a “renewal” of the Catholic Church. Previously, Pope Pius XII had quietly promoted Catholic theological study of the Bible, liturgy, etc., and this became an important backdrop for the reforms of Vatican II.

About Vatican II: 3,000 bishops participated. Non-Catholics were invited as observers. Major actions included: Liturgical Reforms. The Mass was now to be in the language of the people, not Latin, with the priest facing the people instead of his back to the congregation. Lay people could receive communion in the hand, not just on the tongue, and they could receive both bread and wine. Church as Body of Christ and People of God. Lay ministers, both male and female, could serve in church. All Catholics were encouraged to read and study the Bible, not just priests. Ecumenism. The Catholic Church began to reach out to non-Catholics and non-Christians in dialogue. Religious freedom was supported. Relationship to the Modern World. The church was to dialogue with those of the world, including scientists. It was to stand side-by-side with the poor and vulnerable. Freedom of conscience was recognized.

Vatican II

Some Challenges Today in the Church World Issues: Poverty, war, violence, environment Interreligious dialogue / Ecumenism Science, faith, secularism, materialism, atheism Priestly sexual abuse crisis Priest Shortages Catholics Leaving Church Married priests Women priests Marriage / Family / Gays & Lesbians Divorce / Remarriage Family Planning / Artificial Contraception

Vatican II (1962 to 1965) Convened by Pope John XXIII. He died midway through the Council, in The next Pope, Paul VI, continued the Council until it had finished its work.

Key Word “aggiornamento” = “opening a window to allow fresh air to blow in” This word was used to describe Vatican II. Vatican II’s goal was to bring the church up to date. “The essential teachings of the church must be communicated in a way that is helpful for real people living in the real world.”

The Council Meetings 4 sessions from All bishops from around the world attended, along with many advisors! Observers were welcomed from Protestant, Eastern Orthodox churches along with lay observers. 2,500 people participated altogether.

Focus areas of Vatican Council II The Church Authority in the Church Ecumenism Non-Christian Religions The Church and the World The Church and the Bible The Liturgy Religious Freedom The Laity

The Church The Dogmatic constitution on the Church (Lumen Gentium) Church NOT defined as the hierarchy but defined as MYSTERY And as the PEOPLE of GOD Holiness is the vocation of all Christians The hierarchy gains their meaning from the entire people of God and the mystery of God’s love.

Authority in the Church Affirms the role of the pope as the supreme head of the Church..but in a new context Collegiality. The authority of the pope is seen as joined with all bishops as those called to authority in the church The concept of collegiality is one of mutual respect and cooperation. This concept does not diminish the Pope’s authority.

Ecumenism Ecumenism: The movement within the church that works toward greater unity among all Christians The Decree on Ecumenism: States that the church was not limited to the Catholic Church and that the reasons for the divisions between Christians came from both sides of the division.

Non-Christian Religions The church rejects nothing that is good and true in other religious faiths. Encourages dialogue in the search for spiritual and moral values Special respect and understanding should be given to the Jews;they are not to be blamed for the death of Jesus Christ. All kinds of persecution and discrimination are condemned

The Church and the World Very Important> Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World (Gaudium et Spes) Rejected “fortress mentality” > defensive and over protective. Like a fortress the Church wanted to preserve itself and protect us from the evils of the world. The church seeks to UNITE itself with humanity rather than separate itself from humanity. Aggiornamento - The church must update itself and show how faith should affect the way that Christians live in the world.

The Church and the World, cont. The church recognizes the importance and dignity of individual conscience. It recognized the advances of science and culture and taught that such advances need not threaten the church. It encourages a human solidarity in search of justice and peace on earth.

The Church and the Bible The church encourages Scriptural scholarship. The church encourages all its members – not just priests and theologians – to read and study the Bible, and meditate on it as a way to grow spiritually.

The Liturgy Now celebrated in the vernacular of the people. The priest faces the congregation Congregation is encouraged to participate in all facets of celebration. Greater flexibility in meeting the needs of special groups.( teen retreats, children’s liturgy etc.) Flexibility in terms of music.

Documents of Vatican II Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (Lumen Gentium), Nov. 21, Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation (Dei Verbum), Nov. 18,1965. Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy (Sacrosanctum Concilium), Dec. 4, Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World (Gaudium et Spes), Dec. 7, Decree on the Bishops' Pastoral Office in the Church (Christus Dominus), Oct. 28, Decree on the Church's Missionary Activity (Ad Gentes), Dec. 7, Decree on Ecumenism (Unitatis Redintegratio), Nov. 21, Decree on Eastern Catholic Church (Orientalium Ecclesiarum), Nov. 21, Decree on the Ministry and Life of Priests (Presbyterorum Ordinis), Dec. 7, Decree on Priestly Formation (Optatam Totius), Oct. 28, Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of the Religious Life (Perfectae Caritatis), Oct. 25, Decree on the Apostolate of the Laity (Apostolicam Actuositatem), Nov. 18, Decree on the Instruments of Social Communication (Inter Mirifica), Dec. 4, Declaration on Religious Freedom (Dignitatis Humanae), Dec. 7, Declaration on the Relationship of the Church to Non-Christian Religions (Nostra Aetate), Oct. 28, Declaration on Christian Education (Gravissimum Educationis), Oct. 28, 1965.