Theories 1. “Great Man” 2. Trait 3. Behavioral 4. Participative 5. Situational 6. Contingency 7. Transactional 8. Transformational

What is theory?  eory eory  a coherent group of tested general propositions, commonly regarded as correct, that can be used as principles of explanation and prediction for a class of phenomena: Einstein's theory of relativity. Synonyms: principle, law, doctrine.

“Great Man” theory  Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born, not made.  These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to leadership when needed.  The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

“Great Man” theory  The great man theory of leadership became popular during the 19th-century.  The mythology behind some of the world's most famous leaders such as Abraham Lincoln, Julius Caesar, Mahatma Gandhi, and Alexander the Great helped contribute to the notion that great leaders are born and not made.  In many examples, it seems as if the right man for the job seems to emerge almost magically to take control of a situation and lead a group of people into safety or success.

“Great Man” theory  Historian Thomas Carlyle also had a major influence on this theory of leadership, at one point stating that, "The history of the world is but the biography of great men." According to Carlyle, effective leaders are those gifted with divine inspiration and the right characteristics.

“Great Man” theory  Some of the earliest research on leadership looked at people who were already successful leaders.  These individuals often included aristocratic rulers who achieved their position through birthright.  Because people of a lesser social status had fewer opportunities to practice and achieve leadership roles, it contributed to the idea that leadership is an inherent ability.

“Great Man” theory  Even today, people often describe prominent leaders as having the right qualities or personality for the position, implying that inherent characteristics are what make these people effective leaders.

“Trait” theory  Similar in some ways to "Great Man" theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership.  Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders.  If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.

“Trait” theory  The trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed broad dispositions.  Consider how you would describe the personality of a close friend. Chances are that you would list a number of traits, such as outgoing, kind and even-tempered.  A trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain ways.

“Trait” theory  The trait approach to personality is focused on differences between individuals.  The combination and interaction of various traits forms a personality that is unique to each individual.  Trait theory is focused on identifying and measuring these individual personality characteristics.

“Trait” theory  Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory  In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport found that one English-language dictionary alone contained more than 4,000 words describing different personality traits.  He categorized these traits into three levels:

Cardinal Traits  Traits that dominate an individual’s whole life, often to the point that the person becomes known specifically for these traits.  People with such personalities often become so known for these traits that their names are often synonymous with these qualities.  Consider the origin and meaning of the following descriptive terms: Freudian, Machiavellian, narcissism, Don Juan, Christ- like, etc.  Allport suggested that cardinal traits are rare and tend to develop later in life.

Central Traits  These are the general characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality.  These central traits, while not as dominating as cardinal traits, are the major characteristics you might use to describe another person.  Terms such as intelligent, honest, shy and anxious are considered central traits.

Secondary Traits  These are the traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences and often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances.  Some examples would be getting anxious when speaking to a group or impatient while waiting in line.

“Trait” theory  While most agree that people can be described based upon their personality traits, theorists continue to debate the number of basic traits that make up human personality.  While trait theory has objectivity that some personality theories lack, it also has weaknesses.  Some of the most common criticisms of trait theory center on the fact that traits are often poor predictors of behavior.  While an individual may score high on assessments of a specific trait, he or she may not always behave that way in every situation. Another problem is that trait theories do not address how or why individual differences in personality develop or emerge.

“Behavioral” theory  Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born.  Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal states.  According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

“Behavioral” theory  Behavioral psychology is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.  Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.  According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states.  There are two major types of conditioning:

Classical Conditioning  Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response.  leK-PM leK-PM  These techniques are also useful in the treatment of phobias or anxiety problems.

Operant Conditioning  Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.  Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Examples of Operant Conditioning  We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions.  In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior, but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.

“Participative Leadership” theory  Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account.  These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process.  In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

“Situational” theory  Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables.  Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.

“Contingency” theory  Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation.  According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations.  Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation.

“Transactional” theory  Transactional theories, also known as management theories, focus on the role of supervision, organization and group performance.  These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments.  Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

“Transactional” theory  This theory of leadership was first described in by sociologist Max Weber, and further explored by Bernard M. Bass in the early 1980s.

Basic Assumptions of Transactional Leadership  People perform their best when the chain of command is definite and clear.  Workers are motivated by rewards and punishments.  Obeying the instructions and commands of the leader is the primary goal of the followers.  Subordinates need to be carefully monitored to ensure that expectations are met.

“Transformational” theory  Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers.  Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task.  These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential.  Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.

The Components of Transformational Leadership  Intellectual Stimulation – Transformational leaders not only challenge the status quo; they also encourage creativity among followers. The leader encourages followers to explore new ways of doing things and new opportunities to learn.  Individualized Consideration – Transformational leadership also involves offering support and encouragement to individual followers. In order to foster supportive relationships, transformational leaders keep lines of communication open so that followers feel free to share ideas and so that leaders can offer direct recognition of each followers unique contributions.

The Components of Transformational Leadership  Inspirational Motivation – Transformational leaders have a clear vision that they are able to articulate to followers. These leaders are also able to help followers experience the same passion and motivation to fulfill these goals.  Idealized Influence – The transformational leaders serves as a role model for followers. Because followers trust and respect the leader, they emulate the leader and internalize his or her ideals.

Resources  ip/p/leadtheories.htm