Chapter 5 English Syntax: The Grammar of Words

What is syntax? the study of the structures of sentences combining words to create ‘all & only’ ‘well-formed’ sentence chapter, the, reread, students, the *chapter the reread the students. *the reread students the chapter. The students reread the chapter.

parts of speech = lexical categories form: the grammatical or lexical class of a word (N: noun, V: verb, A: adjective, Adv: adverb, P: preposition, Conj: conjunction, Det: determiner, Pro: pronoun, AUX: auxiliary verbs) function: the grammatical role of a word in a phrase or clause (subject, object, complement, adverbial, modifier...)

*Don’t confuse forms with functions! the fast car vs. the company car, Students know the man. vs. Students know that the man is a detective. Open-class lexical categories = content words: nouns, adjective, verbs, adverbs Closed-class lexical categories = function words: P, CONJ, PRO

NOUNS morphological descriptions: plural inflection Syntactic position (DET) (ADJ) ______ the weather, the bad weather, bad weather, weather Countable vs Uncountable

ADJECTIVES morphological descriptions: comparative & superative forms a. 1 syllable ADJ: -er, -est --> tall-er, tall-est b. 3 or more syllable ADJ: more _______, most _____ --> more/most comfortable c. 2 syllable ADJ: –er/est or more/most: common-er/est, more/most common exceptions: more pompous, more purple, (*pompouser, *purpler), more/most fun

Adjectives syntactic position p. 135 attributive position: 한정적 용법 predicative position: 서술적 용법 Tom is happy. Tome makes me happy. those happy girls He is well. Vs. *the well student He is awake vs. *the awake student *The teacher is former vs. the former teacher *her interest is sheer vs. the sheer interest

VERBS conjugations for 6 grammatical categories a.person & number: first, second, third & singular, plural b. tense: past – present, no future(?) vs. time: past-present-future c. aspect: whether the action of the verb is completed or continuous ==> perfect or progressive perfect: I have finished my work. progressive: I am playing the guitar. I have been playing the guitar.

VERBS d. voice: the relationship of the subject to the action of the verb (eg. agent, recipient) Active : I broke the record. --> Passive: The record was broken. e. mood: indicating the speaker/writer’s attitude toward what they are expressing: indicative mood (of statement, question): I am writing a letter. imperative mood (of command): Write! subjunctive mood (of conditions): I wish ice cream were healthier.

VERBS Morphological Description a. the past tense – the past participle b. the past participle appears in perfect & passive constructions. present perfect: I have stolen the money. past perfect: I had stolen the money. passive: The game was stolen. c. the present participle: appears in progressive constructions.

VERBS -Syntactic Position of Verbs a. (in-)transitivity: whether the verb takes a direct object or not. intransitive: 자동사 : no object We sleep. transitive V. : one direct object We made cookies. di-transitive V: direct O. & indirect O. We gave Sue the cookies. linking V: subject complement/predicative We are happy. object-predicative : DO. + O. complement/pred. We made him a doctor. *We will come dinner. *Some verbs require.

VERBS: syntactic positions b. V + I.O. + D.O. ---> V + D.O. to/for I.O. I gave her cookies. ---> I gave cookies to her. I cooked her cookies. ---> I cooked cookies for her.

ADVERBS modify verbs (walk quickly), adjectives (truly beautiful), other adverbs (wonderfully quickly) clauses or sentences as sentence adverbs (Frankly, adverbs seem a bit hard to pin down.

ADVERBS: categories temporal adverbs: place adverbs: manner adverbs describe how an action or state occurs. e.g. quickly, safely degree adverbs discourse (or sentence) adverbs describe the speaker’s or writer’s stance on the clause/sentence. frankly, bluntly....

ADVERBS: syntactic position Quickly I read through the chapter. I Quickly read through the chapter. I read Quickly through the chapter. I read through the chapter Quickly.

Closed-class Lexical Categories Prepositions: __________ NP Conjunctions: To connect words, phrases, or clauses. -coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet -correlative conjunctions: either – or, neither – nor, not only – but also, Either cookies or candy

CONJUNCTIONS -subordinating conjunctions: because, although, when, after, before, unless, if, while, in order that, as long as, ……. After we ate all the cookies, we felt sick. We felt sick after we ate all the cookies. -Complementizers: that, a set of wh-words (what, whether, who/whom/where, why), how I know that he is honest. I know what happened yesterday/how it happened.

PRONOUNS personal pronouns Indefinite pronouns: one, anyone, someone, everyone, no one, something, neither, either, another, both, all, most, some, whoever/ whomever, whatever Interrogative pronouns: who/whom/whose, what, which Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those Relative pronouns: who/whom/whose, that, which, whoever/whomever, whichever

DETERMINERS P.149 articles: indefinite articles a/an vs. definite article the quantity: some, many, all … number: one, two, first, second. ….. pragmatic functions such as specification: this, that

Auxiliary verbs (pp ) occur before main verbs to indicate time, aspect, modality, emphasis, and negative, interrogative, and passive constructions primary aux.: be, have, do modal aux: can, could, may, might, shall, should, must Epistemic: He must have overslept. She may be ill. Deontic: He must apologize. She may come in. marginal aux: used to, ought to, …… morphologically defective verbs = not inflected They must have been being done.

CHALLENGES TO CATEGORIZATION The Suffix –ing: We all love studying, Studying is fun. The (*very)/*more beeping phone the phone that is beeping ( 현재분사 ) Noun Modifiers: My English class textbook, My English class textbook cover, My English class textbook cover image Yes and No Do you love me? Yes, I do. No, I don’t.