The Persuasiveness of the Source

Learning Objectives After reading the text, you should be able to: 1. Understand the influence of media on how audience members perceive persuasive sources 2. Define credibility using rhetorical and social science perspectives 3. Describe what is meant by image, explain how images are created, understand the effect images have on audiences, and evaluate images of persuaders 4. Explain aspects of institutional sources, such as organizational image and the use of spokespersons

Learning Objectives 5. Identify the key components of an individual’s credibility, including non-verbal and verbal communication and impression management 6. Describe ways that images are repaired through persuasion 7. Understand propaganda and how it is used today by persuaders

Key Terms Source credibility Image Nonverbal communication Impression management Propaganda Leak

The Persuasiveness of the Source Living in a media age forces us to look at the source of persuasive messages differently In the past, audiences knew and related to persuaders on a personal basis Today our relationships with persuaders are formed through mediated images of them In the media age we often form relationships with persuaders because of the image they present

Sources in the Media Age The fact that persuaders convey their messages through media has four profound effects on how we view persuaders 1. Media allow us to see, hear, and be close to persuaders 2. Media distill information about them into images 3. Media give meaning to the images of persuaders 4. Media privilege certain kinds of information about persuaders

Sources in the Media Age Media make it possible for us to see, hear and be close to persuaders Twitter Internet Morning newspaper Noon call-in show Evening news

Sources in the Media Age Media distill the enormous amount of information available about individuals into easily understood images of them Media privilege certain types of information about sources Persuaders do not completely control their public presentation – media give meaning and offer interpretations The media age characterizes some types of information as more important than others

Defining Credibility Credibility is the audience’s perception of the persuader Audience’s perception is dynamic Credibility is a social construct that is created, maintained, and changed through communication Because credibility is a social construct, ideas about what is credible vary from time to time and culture to culture

Ethos Aristotle identified three reasons why some speakers were believed more readily than others 1. Practical wisdom – correctness of speaker’s ideas and the speaker’s ability to express those opinions 2. Virtue – “ability for doing good” – includes justice, courage, and self-control 3. Goodwill – the speaker’s having the best interests of the audience in mind

Source Credibility Modern social science researchers use the term source credibility – a persuader’s degree of safety, qualification, and dynamism Safety – the degree to which the audience trusts the source Qualification – the expertise of the source – training, experience, intelligence Dynamism – functions primarily to intensify the audience’s judgment about persuader’s safety and qualifications – aggressiveness, boldness, and energy emphasize, augment, and implement persuader’s ideas

Source Credibility Credibility can be partially understood by looking at two research constructs 1. Ethos – audience examines wisdom, virtue, and goodwill of the persuader 2. Credibility – includes the persuader’s safety, qualification, and dynamism

The Image of the Source Beliefs about a persuader are not formed through direct interaction but through interaction with media and based on mediated information Image – conception or mental picture of a person, an institution, or a nation Aristotle’s definition of ethos much different than today’s – he believed persuaders could not “fake” ethos In the media age persuaders are highly adept at portraying themselves as credible and trustworthy although they are not

Characteristics of Images Daniel Boorstin (1975): 1. Synthetic Planned by persuaders; an outward expression of how a person or organization wants to be seen by others Meta-imaging is giving behind-the-scenes access to reporters, who tell public about “real” person behind the image 2. Believable – images are powerful mental pictures that shape how we think, feel, and act – narrative fidelity 3. Vivid and concrete – should include attributes that are touchable, colorful, or striking

Characteristics of Images Daniel Boorstin (1975): 4. Simplified – provide audience with only a small amount of the total knowledge available about an individual or a company 5. Ambiguous – serve multiple and unforeseen purposes and are open for interpretation

Effects of Images on Audiences Images have cognitive, emotional, and behavioral effects on audiences Images serve as filters by which we evaluate information about a person or an organization (Boulding, 1956)

Creating an Image Bennett (2009) identifies four aspects of image creation: 1. Message shaping – composing a single theme or message for an audience to consider 2. Message salience – saturating communication channels with a message so it receives attention and is perceived as important 3. Message credibility – portrayal of messages in the company of other credible symbols 4. Message framing – telling stories with common themes that can be easily and quickly understood

Media and Images Parry-Giles (2000) identifies several effects media have on image making News media coverage of persuaders often makes use of stereotypes, which is one way news media influence our perception of them Images selected for coverage of persuaders also influences audience perception Images are manipulated by news media; stock images used instead of actual images News media repeat, retell, and recycle stories

Choosing Meaning for an Image Bennett (2009) outlines three situations in which audience members must select a meaning for an image 1. In times of uncertainty we cling to our old images 2. If truth is ambiguous because audience does not know who to trust, audience will hold on to the old image 3. Audience holds on to old images if they remain more salient than contradictory information

Evaluating Images Persuader’s images are contrived and filtered by media and should be seen as a highly suspect form of proof 1. Images can be easily manipulated 2. Images deny us important information with which to make decisions 1. Avoid prejudging a persuasive source 2. Understand the influence of the media in creating images of persuaders 3. Seek information about sources from a variety of media

Institutional Sources Large organizations spend considerable amounts of money to create a compelling image An organization’s image is more transient than its identity and is only somewhat controlled by the organization

Organizational Image Two functions of organizational images 1. Images are related to how members and nonmembers think and feel about the organization 2. Images help the organization function on a day-to- day basis by communicating the organization’s knowledge, values, and beliefs

Organizational Image Organizations create images formally and informally Mission statements Training procedures Newsletters Advertising campaigns Holiday parties Storytelling Interpersonal interactions

Spokespeople Institutions are often personified in a spokesperson, either a celebrity or an institutional member Spokesperson can be used to generate interest in new product or regenerate interest in an established product Spokesperson can be used to appeal to a particular market segment

Spokespeople Support an ad campaign Connect the organization’s product or service with a designated “national month” Audiences often equate an organization with the person who talks to media sources or makes public statements on its behalf

Individual Persuaders Nonverbal communication – eye movement, facial expression, body language Eye movement 1. Attention – signals readiness to communicate 2. Persuasion – maintaining eye contact enhances credibility 3. Regulatory – looking away while speaking, making eye contact when ready to listen 4. Affective – display emotions and their intensity 5. Power – staring allows powerful to dominate others 6. Impression management –managing eye movement effectively controls display of assertiveness, self-esteem, and communicativeness

Individual Persuaders Culture affects how we perceive others’ nonverbal communication Body language 1. Liking versus nonliking 2. Assertiveness versus nonassertiveness 3. Power versus powerlessness

Individual Persuaders Nonverbal indicators of liking Forward-leaning posture Body and head orientation to face other person Open-body positions Affirmative head nods Close interpersonal distance Smiling Similar posture

Individual Persuaders Nonverbal indicators of disliking Relative absence of gestures Body rigidity Closed body posture Assuming postures different from the other person Bodily tension

Individual Persuaders Nonverbal indicators of assertiveness Consistency in verbal and nonverbal messages Relaxed gestures and postures Emphasizing key words and phrases with vocal inflection and gestures, touching if appropriate Nonverbal indicators of nonassertiveness Hand wringing Lip licking Hunching the shoulders Covering the mouth with the hand Frequent throat clearing Rigid body posture

Individual Persuaders Positive nonverbal indicators of perceived power Relaxed posture Erect rather than slumped posture Dynamic and purposeful gestures The option to approach another person closely Nonverbal indicators of powerlessness Body tension Arriving early for parties Sitting in the 11 o’clock position at a conference table Not exposing the soles of shoes Assuming closed postures

Individual Persuaders Personal appearance communicates a great deal to others Attractiveness implies goodness, talent, and success Personality generalizations are formed based on physical appearance Facial attractiveness Plastic surgery modifies personal appearance to make a person appear more attractive Various artifacts change appearance – clothing, hairstyle, contact lenses, jewelry

Delivery Eloquent persuaders today use a conversational style of communicating to their audience Conversational speakers often go without a scripted speech, use an outline instead

Impression Management Impression management – an individual’s conscious attempt to control how others perceive him or her, especially by controlling nonverbal cues Persuaders put up a front – all the activity occurring during continuous presence before a particular set of observers which has some influence on the observers Backstage – the natural state of the individual that the audience does not see

Personal Impression Management The media age makes it possible for persuaders to interact directly with audiences through a variety of media channels Facebook wall posting – designed to make user look like a certain type of person Well-written blog, Twitter feed, YouTube video can potentially give a single individual significant influence

Image Repair William Benoit (1995) – five image-repair strategies within three general categories: 1. Deflect charges 2. Minimize the attack 3. Mortification

Image Repair 1. Deflect charges Denial Simple denial Blame shifting Evasion of responsibility Provocation defense – something “made me do it” Defeasibility – lack of information about or control over important situational elements that caused offensive act Accident Offense occurred while he or she was trying to do something good – consequences were “unforeseen and unintended”

Image Repair 2. Minimize the attack Reduction of offensiveness Bolstering attempts – to strengthen positive affect to offset negative feelings resulting from wrongful act Minimization – reduce negative impression of wrongful act Differentiation – to show action was not as bad as other similar actions Transcendence – recontextualizing the act to show that higher values were at stake Counterattack – assault credibility of the accuser Corrective action – repair damage or prevent recurrence

Image Repair 3. Mortification Acknowledge and accept responsibility for the action Ask forgiveness

Image Repair Deflect chargesMinimize the attackMortification DenialReduce offensivenessMortification simple denial blame shifting bolstering minimization differentiation transcendence counterattack compensation EvasionCorrective action provocation defeasibility accident something good

Queen Elizabeth II celebrates her Diamond Jubilee in 2012 Despite low public opinion polls earlier in her career, the Queen has effectively restored her image and enjoys a great deal of popularity.

Covert Persuasion: Propaganda Presence of anonymous sources is an indicator of propaganda Propaganda – an attempt to persuade without seeming to do so Usually seen as a type of persuasion that has negative consequences for society Persuaders remain hidden while exerting a powerful influence on society

Entertainment Media Entertainment programming often hides the identities of those behind the message Clinton administration offered financial incentives to incorporate antidrug messages in their programs ER Beverly Hills Chicago Hope

News Media Journalists often use anonymous news sources and news leaks to persuade and influence audience Leaks – statements made by persuaders to attract media attention Test certain ideas with the public Used to undermine one’s opponents Leaks of tantalizing information can give one media outlet an advantage over its competitors Information leaked to bolster image of political leader or organization