Ch. 17, Sec. 2: Struggles in Africa South Africa Struggles for Freedom The policy of apartheid was devastating to the black majority in South Africa. The ANC led a struggle for majority rule. With the help of sanctions from foreign countries, apartheid ended and all South Africans were allowed to vote in 1994, electing ANC leader Nelson Mandela president. Still, black poverty remains high. South Africa’s Neighbors Face Long Conflict Portugal fought to retain its colonies in Angola and Mozambique, while nationalist movements struck with guerilla warfare. Even after independence civil wars raged for years, fueled by the influence of Cold War rivalries. Ethnic Conflicts Kill Millions In Rwanda, Burundi, and Sudan, ethnic conflicts led to violence. Rwandan majority Hutus attacked the Tutsi people. Tutsis and Hutus also fought in Burundi. In Sudan, Arab Muslims tried to suppress the non-Muslim black Sudanese.

Ch. 17, Sec 3: Conflicts in the Middle East Arabs and Israelis Fight Over Land Since Israel was established in 1948, the country has fought Arab forces and gained and given back lands belonging to neighboring countries. The PLO has led a struggle to gain homelands for Palestinians, often using suicide bombers. Progress toward peace has been made since prime minister Ariel Sharon launched a plan to withdraw Israeli settlements form Gaza and since Mahmoud Abbas took Yasir Arafat’s place as head of the PLO. Civil War Ravages Lebanon When Muslim Palestinians migrated to Lebanon, the balance of people of different religions was tipped. Religious tensions erupted into civil war in Although the war ended in 1990, the country’s fate seems tied to peace among its neighbors.

Iraq’s Long History of Conflict For centuries, Sunni Arabs held power in Iraq. They repressed the Kurdish minority and the Shiite Arab majority. Iraqi Dictator Saddam Hussein had U.S. support in a war with Iran over territory. When Hussein invaded Kuwait, however, the U.S. and a coalition of other countries sided with Kuwait and drove Iraq out. They also set up no-fly zones in Iraq to protect the Kurds and Shiites. Iraq was forbidden to develop weapons of mass destruction, but would not cooperate with inspectors from the UN. In 2003, U.S.-led coalition forces occupied Iraq and then imprisoned Hussein. Efforts to rebuild the country have been thwarted by guerilla attacks.