Cognition Domain kali9/istockphoto

Memory Rodrigo Blanco/istockphoto

Information Processing Model Encoding – process of getting information into the memory system. Storage – The retention encoded information over time. Retrieval – The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Information Processing Model PHOTOS: CHARLES T. BLAIR BROEKER

Encoding Module 22: Information Processing

Encoding: Automatic Processing and Effortful Processing Module 22: Information Processing

Automatic Processing The unconscious and effortless process of encoding certain information such as space, time and frequency.

Effortful Processing Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. The best processing is through rehearsal or practice.

Automatic/Effortful Processing

Rehearsal The conscious repetition of information. The more time spent on rehearsal, the more information one tends to remember.

Rehearsal and Retention

Hermann Ebbinghaus ( ) German philosopher who did pioneering memory studies. –Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

Overlearning Continuing to rehearse even after it has been memorized Rehearsing past the point of mastery Helps ensure information will be available even under stress

Encoding: Serial Position Effect Module 22: Information Processing

Serial Position Effect The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list more easily. –Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list –Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list

Primacy/Recency Effect

Encoding: Spacing of Rehearsal Module 22: Information Processing

Spacing Effect The tendency for distributed practice to yield better retention than is achieved through massed practice –Distributed Practice Spreading rehearsal out in several sessions separated by period of time Usually enhances the recalling of the information –Massed Practice Putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming) Not as effective as distributed practice

Encoding: Encoding Meaning Module 22: Information Processing

Encoding Meaning Semantic Encoding –Encoding of meaning. –Encoding information that is meaningful enhances recall Acoustic Encoding –Encoding information based on the sounds of the information Visual Encoding –Encoding information based on the images of the information

Visual Encoding

Self-Reference Effect Enhanced semantic encoding of information that is personally relevant –Making information meaningful to a person by making it relevant to one’s life

Encoding: Encoding Imagery Module 22: Information Processing

Encoding Imagery Visual images easily encode Especially extremely positive or negative images ROBERT CLAR/AURORA

Encoding: Mnemonic Devices Module 22: Information Processing

Mnemonic Device A memory trick or technique. “Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale “I before E except after C” to remember spelling words

Examples of Mnemonic Devices Method of Loci –Mnemonic device in which you associate items you want to remember with imaginary places Peg Words –Mnemonic device in which you associate items you want to remember with a list of words already you have already memorized –Goal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

Peg Word System

Encoding: Organizing Information Module 22: Information Processing

Chunking Organizing information into meaningful units. More information can be encoded if organized into meaningful chunks.

Chunking Take ten seconds to memorize the above line of letters.

Chunking Take ten seconds to memorize the above line of letters.

Chunking

Storage Module 22: Information Processing

Three Storage Systems Three distinct storage systems : –Sensory Memory –Short-Term Memory (includes Working Memory) –Long-Term Memory

Sensory Memory Brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system. –Iconic store – visual information –Echoic store – sound information Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

Short-Term Memory The part of your memory system that contains information you are consciously aware of before it is stored more permanently or forgotten. –Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information –Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed Also called “working memory”

Short-Term Memory

Long-Term Memory The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. –Holds memories without conscious effort

Flashbulb Memory A vivid, clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. –Can be personal memories or centered around a shared event

Retrieval Module 22: Information Processing

Retrieval The process of getting information out of memory storage Two forms of retrieval –Recall The type of retrieval in which you must search for information that you previously stored –Ex. a fill-in-the-blank test –Recognition The type of retrieval in which you must identify items you learned earlier –Ex. a multiple choice test

Retrieval

Retrieval: Context Module 22: Information Processing

Context Effect The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information.

Context Effect

Retrieval: State Dependency Module 22: Information Processing

State Dependent Memory The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in the same physical and emotional state you were in when you encoded the information. –The retrieval state is congruent (the same as) with the encoding state

Forgetting and Memory Construction Module 23

Forgetting as Encoding Failure Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

Information Processing Model REVIEW Encoding – The process of getting information into the memory system. Storage – The retention of encoded information in memory over time. Retrieval – The process of getting encoded information out of memory storage.

Encoding Failures People fail to encode information because: –It is unimportant to them –It is not necessary to know the information –A decrease in the brain’s ability to encode

Which is the Right Penny? (From Nickerson & Adams, 1979)

Forgetting as Storage Failure Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

The Forgetting Curve (Adapted from Ebbinghaus, 1885)

Forgetting as Retrieval Failure: Interference Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

Interference A retrieval problem when one memory gets in the way of remembering another Two types of interference: –Proactive interference When an older memory disrupts the recall of a newer memory. –Retroactive interference When a more recent memory disrupts the recall of an older memory.

Proactive Interference

Retroactive Interference

Forgetting as Retrieval Failure: Motivated Forgetting Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

Repression In Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, –the process of moving anxiety-producing memories to the unconscious. A proposed way of protecting oneself from painful memories NOT well-supported by research; stressful incidents are actually more likely to be encoded

Memory Construction Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

Memory Jigsaw Analogy Memories, rather than being like a video tape, are formed as bits and pieces. People may retrieve only some of the pieces of the memory

Elizabeth Loftus (1944- ) Research established the constructed nature of memory. –Has found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions –Demonstrated the misinformation effect Incorporating misleading information into a memory of an event. –Affects eyewitness testimony

Misinformation Effect

Memory Construction: Children’s Recall Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

Children’s Testimony on Abuse Research has shown children’s testimony to be unreliable Children are very open to suggestions As children mature their memories improve

Accurate Interviewing Methods To promote accuracy with children’s testimony the interviewer should: –Phrase questions in a way the child can understand –Have no prior contact with the child –Use neutral language and do not lead or suggest answers

Memory Construction: Recovered Memories Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

Accuracy of Memories

The End