CHAPTER 2 Examining Our Social World

Social Research Examines human behavior Is guided by rules and procedures Involves the objective gathering of data

WHY IS SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH IMPORTANT IN OUR EVERYDAY LIVES? Oprah Winfrey has regularly featured guests, such as actress Suzanne Somers, who dismiss scientific findings about health and endorse treatments such as taking up to 60 vitamin pills every day and wishing cancer away.

Bases of Knowledge Tradition—We’ve always done it that way. –Customs, rituals, and procedures Authority—An important source said so. –Experts, parents, government, and religion Scientific Method—Careful data collection and measurement, appropriate generalizations –Carefully controlled studies

Application What basis of knowledge is it? –Sam believes it’s true because the Bible said so. –A good spanking always worked for my kids. –Nine out of 10 people who answered the survey said they were in favor of the change.

 Creates new knowledge  Exposes myths  Affects social policies  Sharpens critical thinking skills  Helps us make informed decisions

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Variable —a characteristics that can change in value or magnitude under different conditions  Examples: age, ethnicity, social class

Application What are some variables that reflect each of these categories? –Attitudes –Behaviors –Traits

In a research study, scientists : Ask a question –How does divorce affect children? Or test a hypothesis? –The less education an individual has, the more likely they are to use corporal punishment with their children.

Hypothesis Statement of a relationship between two or more variables Statement that will be tested in the study

Variables in a Hypothesis Independent variable—determines or has an effect Dependent variable—the outcome

Application Identify the independent and dependent variables. The more you study, the more you know. Violence rates are higher among cohabiting couples than among married couples. Curfews reduce vandalism rates.

Research results should have: Reliability—consistency –If we calculate a state’s divorce rate ten times, will the answer always be the same? Validity—accuracy –Does the divorce rate accurately reflect relationship breakup?

 Deductive reasoning —moving from the general to the specific  Theory → Hypothesis → Observation → Confirmation  Inductive reasoning —moving from the specific to the general  Observation → Pattern → Hypothesis → Theory

Sample The part of the population (well-defined group of people or things) that is studied Probability sample—each person or thing has an equal chance of being selected; results can be generalized to the larger population Nonprobability sample—researchers rely on convenience or availability

The Research Process 1.Choose a topic –Conflicts among students in a high school 2.Summarize the related research –Read past studies about student conflict. 3.Formulate a hypothesis or ask a research question –Students who work together on a project will be less likely to experience conflicts.

The Research Process (cont.) 4. Describe the data collection methods –Set up a situation where some students work with others. 5. Collect the data. –Observe students before, during, and after the “work together” situation. 6. Present the findings. –Analyze the data and present the findings.

The Research Process (cont.) 7. Analyze and explain the results. –Explain why the information is important and how it can be generalized. –Will it work in other schools?

Research is: Qualitative—nonnumeric description –A researcher works in a meat-packing plant and describes his experiences. Quantitative—numerical analysis –Reported number of safety violations are analyzed in relationship to number of inspections.

Correlation and Causation Sociologists usually talk about correlation—the relationship between variables—rather than causation.

Data Collection Methods Section is based on: –Benefits and limitations of the method –Time and budget constraints

Surveys Questionnaires and interviews Advantages: inexpensive, easy to administer, fast turn-around rate, ease in acquiring sensitive information Disadvantages: low response rate, possibility of inaccurate information

Secondary Analysis Examines data that have been collected by someone else Includes historical materials, personal documents, public records, and official statistics Advantages: accessible, convenient, inexpensive Disadvantages: may not have the needed information

 Observing people in their natural surroundings  Includes participant observation  Advantages: in-depth understanding, flexible, does not disrupt the subjects  Disadvantages: sometimes expensive or dangerous, little control over the data

Content Analysis Systematically examining some form of communication Analyzing speeches, songs, diaries, e- mails Advantages: in-expensive, less-time consuming; correct coding errors easily; unobtrusive; permits comparisons over time Disadvantages: can be labor intensive; coding is subjective; may reflect social class bias

ETHICS, POLITICS, AND SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

 Do no harm.  Get the subjects’ informed consent.  Protect subjects’ confidentiality.

Political Influences on Research Policy makers might ignore or suppress research findings. Advocacy groups might ignore findings that could reduce funding. Policy makers may refuse to fund controversial subjects.