WELCOME TO A&P I Vladimir Jurukovski PhD Professor Suffolk County Community College William Lindsay Life Sciences Building 306 (631)

The bookstore has a two volume edition specially for SCCC that can be purchased separately. Vol.1 for BIO-130 includes a Connect access code for one semester. Vol. 2 for BIO-132 includes a Connect access code for one semester. Laboratory manual can only be purchased in the bookstore Full hardcover edition of the A&P textbook.

 Anatomy and physiology (A&P) is about human structure and function—the biology of the human body  We want to know how our body works!  A&P is a foundation for advanced study in health care, exercise physiology, pathophysiology, and other health- care-related fields  Considers the historical development and a central concept of physiology—homeostasis 1-3

 Expected Learning Outcomes  Define anatomy and physiology and relate them to each other.  Describe several ways of studying human anatomy.  Define a few sub-disciplines of human physiology. 1-4

 Examining structure of the human body  Inspection  Palpation  Auscultation  Percussion  Cadaver dissection  Cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their relationships  Comparative anatomy  Study of more than one species in order to examine structural similarities and differences, and analyze evolutionary trends 1-5

Cadaver Dissection

 Exploratory surgery  Open body and take a look inside  Medical imaging  Viewing the inside of the body without surgery  Radiology—branch of medicine concerned with imaging  Gross anatomy  Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye  Cytology  Study of structure and function of cells  Histology (microscopic anatomy)  Examination of cells with microscope  Ultrastructure  View molecular detail under electron microscope  Histopathology  Microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease 1-7

Exploratory Surgery Medical Imaging Cytology Gross Anatomy Histology

 Subdisciplines  Neurophysiology (physiology of nervous system)  Endocrinology (physiology of hormones)  Pathophysiology (mechanisms of disease)  Comparative physiology  Limitations on human experimentation  Study of different species to learn about bodily function  Animal surgery  Animal drug tests  Basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures 1-9

 Modern biomedical science  Technological enhancements  Advances in medical imaging have enhanced our diagnostic ability and life-support strategies  Genetic Revolution  Human genome is finished  Gene therapy is being used to treat disease  Early pioneers were important  Established scientific way of thinking  Replaced superstition with natural laws 1-10

 Expected Learning Outcomes  List the levels of human structure from the most complex to the simplest.  Discuss the clinical significance of anatomical variation among humans. 1-11

 Organism – a single, complete individual  Organ System – human body made of 11 organ systems  Organ – structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function  Tissue – a mass of similar cells and cell products that form discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function  Cells – the smallest units of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of life  Cytology – the study of cells and organelles  Organelles – microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions  Molecules – make up organelles and other cellular components  macromolecules – proteins, carbohydrates, fats, DNA  Atoms – the smallest particles with unique chemical identities 1-12

 Organization  Cellular composition  Metabolism  anabolism, catabolism and excretion  Responsiveness and movement  Stimuli  Homeostasis  Development  differentiation and growth  Reproduction  Evolution  mutations 1-13

Horseshoe kidney Normal Variations in branches of the aorta Pelvic kidney  No two humans are exactly alike  70% most common structure  30% anatomically variant  Variable number of organs  Missing muscles, extra vertebrae, renal arteries  Variation in organ locations 1-14

 Sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity  Typical physiological values  reference man  22 years old, 154 lbs, 68.5 in, light physical activity  consumes 2800 kcal/day  reference woman  22 years old, 128 lbs, 64.5 in and 2000 kcal/day 1-15

 Homeostasis – the body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions  state of the body fluctuates (dynamic equilibrium) within limited range around a set point  Negative feedback keeps variable close to the set point  Loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death 1-16

 Body senses a change and activates mechanisms to reverse it—dynamic equilibrium  Because feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them (temperature, for example), they are called feedback loops 1-17 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Room temperature fallsto66°F(19°C) Thermost atactivates furnace Thermostat shuts off furnace Room cools down Room temperature rises to 70°F (21°C) 3 4 Heat output C10°15°20°25° 80°F50°60°70° C10°15°20°25° 80°F50°60°70°

 Example: Room temperature does not stay at set point of 68°F— it only averages 68°F 1-18 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Room temperature ( o F) Time Furnace turned on at 66 o F Set point 68 o F Furnace turned off at 70 o F

 Example: Brain senses change in blood temperature  If too warm, vessels dilate (vasodilation) in the skin and sweating begins (heat-losing mechanism)  If too cold, vessels in the skin constrict (vasoconstriction) and shivering begins (heat-gaining mechanism) 1-19 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Vasoconstriction Vasodilation Set point Time Shivering 37.5 o C (99.5 o F) 37.0 o C (98.6 o F) 36.5 o C (97.7 o F) Core body temperature Sweating

 Sitting up in bed causes a drop in blood pressure in the head and upper torso region (local imbalance in homeostasis); detected by baroreceptors  Baroreceptors (sensory nerve endings) in the arteries near the heart alert the cardiac center in the brainstem. They transmit to the cardiac center  Cardiac center sends nerve signals that increase the heart rate and return the blood pressure to normal; regulates heart rate  Failure of this to feedback loop may produce dizziness in the elderly 1-20 Baroreceptors send signals to cardiac center of brainstem Baroreceptors above heart respond to drop in blood pressure Cardiac center accelerates heartbeat Blood pressure rises to normal; homeostasis is restored Blood drains from upper body, creating homeostatic imbalance Person rises from bed Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

 Receptor—senses change in the body (e.g., stretch receptors that monitor blood pressure)  Integrating (control) center—control center that processes the sensory information, “makes a decision,” and directs the response (e.g., cardiac center of the brain)  Effector—carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis (e.g., cell or organ) 1-21

 Self-amplifying cycle  Leads to greater change in the same direction  Feedback loop is repeated—change produces more change  Normal way of producing rapid changes  Occurs with childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, fever, and generation of nerve signals 1-22

 During birth, the head of the fetus pushes against the cervix and stimulates its nerve endings  Hormone oxytocin is secreted from the pituitary gland  Oxytocin travels through the bloodstream to the uterus stimulating it to contract  This action pushes the fetus downward toward cervix, thus stimulating the cervix more, causing the positive feedback loop to be repeated Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and pushes fetus toward cervix Nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain Brain stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin Head of fetus pushes against cervix 2

 Fever > 104°F  Metabolic rate increases  Body produces heat even faster  Body temperature continues to rise  Further increasing metabolic rate  Cycle continues to reinforce itself  Becomes fatal at 113°F 1-24

 Cell Theory  All structure and function result from the activity of cells  Homeostasis  The purpose of most normal physiology is to maintain stable conditions within the body  Evolution  The human body is a product of evolution  Hierarchy of Structure  Human structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity  Unity of Form and Function  Form and function complement each other; physiology cannot be divorced from anatomy 1-25

 Radiography (X-rays)  William Roentgen’s discovery in 1885  Penetrate tissues to darken photographic film beneath the body  Dense tissue appears white  Over half of all medical imaging  Until 1960s, it was the only method widely available 1-26 © U.H.B. Trust/Tony Stone Images/Getty Imagese (a) X-ray (radiograph) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

 Radiopaque substances  Injected or swallowed  Fills hollow structures  Blood vessels  Intestinal tract 1-27 (b Cerebral angiogram Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Custom Medical Stock Photos, Inc.

 Computed tomography (CT scan)  Formerly called a CAT scan  Low-intensity X-rays and computer analysis  Slice-type image  Increased sharpness of image 1-28 (c) Computed tomographic (CT) scan Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. © CNR/Phototake

 Positron emission tomography (PET) scan  Assesses metabolic state of tissue  Distinguished tissues most active at a given moment  Mechanics—inject radioactively labeled glucose  Positrons and electrons collide  Gamma rays given off  Detected by sensor  Analyzed by computer  Image color shows tissues using the most glucose at that moment  Damaged tissues appear dark 1-29 (d) Positron emission tomographic (PET) scan Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Tony Stone Images/Getty Images

 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)  Slice-type image  Superior quality to CT scan  Best for soft tissue  Mechanics  Alignment and realignment of hydrogen atoms with magnetic field and radio waves  Varying levels of energy given off used by computer to produce an image 1-30 Figure 1.13e (e) Magnetic resonance image (MRI) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. © Monte S. Buchsbaum, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY

 Sonography  Second oldest and second most widely used  Mechanics  High-frequency sound waves echo back from internal organs  Avoids harmful X-rays  Obstetrics  Image not very sharp 1-31