Chapter 16 GENDER ROLES Section 1: What Are Gender Roles? Section 2: Gender Differences Section 3: Gender Typing Section 4: Variation in Gender Roles

What are gender roles and gender stereotypes and how do they differ? The sex of an individual, either male or female – A biological trait that is fixed by the genes before birth Gender Roles – widely accepted societal expectations about how males and females should behave – Defines appropriate masculine and feminine behavior in a particular culture – Not genetically determined Product of both biological and social factors Section 1: What Are Gender Roles? GENDER

What are gender roles and gender stereotypes and how do they differ? Gender Stereotypes – fixed and oversimplified beliefs about the ways in which men and women ought to behave – In the U.S., linked to the traditional view of men as breadwinners and women as homemakers Women are traditionally expected to care for children and cook the meals, all around the world Even emotions are stereotyped – women are more likely to feel sad, fear, and sympathy – Men are more likely to feel anger and pride Section 1: What Are Gender Roles? GENDER

What are gender roles and gender stereotypes and how do they differ? Active, adventurous, aggressive, arrogant Capable, coarse, conceited, confident courageous, cruel Determined, disorderly Enterprising Hardheaded Individualistic, inventive Loud Obnoxious, opinionated Pleasure-seeking, precise Quick Rational, realistic, reckless, resourceful, rigid, robust Sharp-witted, show-off, steady, stern stingy Tough Unscrupulous Section 1: What Are Gender Roles? Male Stereotypes

What are gender roles and gender stereotypes and how do they differ? Affectionate, appreciative Cautious, changeable, charming, complicated Dependent, dreamy Emotional, excitable Faultfinding, fearful, fickle, foolish, forgiving, fussy Gentle Imaginative Modest Nervous Patient, pleasant Self-pitying, sensitive, sentimental, sexy, softhearted, sophisticated, submissive, suggestible Talkative, timid, touchy Understanding, unstable Weak, worrying Section 1: What Are Gender Roles? Female Stereotypes

What are gender roles and gender stereotypes and how do they differ? Gender stereotypes have tended to keep women in the home Educational opportunities for women have traditionally been more limited – Today many jobs are still stereotyped as primarily for women Nursing and teaching in elementary school Large numbers of women have entered some professions previously limited to men, such as medicine and law Section 1: What Are Gender Roles? GENDER

How have some studies indicated gender differences in cognitive abilities, personality, and behavior? Physical Differences – are obvious from birth – Primary sex characteristics Reproductive organs (testes, ovaries) – Secondary sex characteristics Deeper voices and greater amounts of facial hair in men Smaller body size and wider hips in women – Controlled by sex hormones that are determined by genes Section 2: Gender Differences GENDER DIFFERENCES

How have some studies indicated gender differences in cognitive abilities, personality, and behavior? Differences in Cognitive Abilities – Males and females each outperform the other in certain tasks – Once men were thought to be more intelligent than women because they had greater knowledge of world affairs and skill in science and industry – Assessments of intelligence do not show overall gender differences in cognitive abilities – Research shows that females are superior to males in verbal abilities Girls acquire language faster than boys Section 2: Gender Differences GENDER DIFFERENCES

How have some studies indicated gender differences in cognitive abilities, personality, and behavior? Far more boys than girls have reading problems – Men headed for college seem to catch up in verbal skills – Men seem to be superior in the ability to manipulate visual images held in memory Particularly in math, science, and map reading – Men are more likely to use N, S, E, & W as reference, and women are more likely to use landmarks when giving directions Section 2: Gender Differences GENDER DIFFERENCES

How have some studies indicated gender differences in cognitive abilities, personality, and behavior? Differences in Personality and Behavior – women tend to exceed men in trust, nurturance and attention while men tend to exceed women in assertiveness, and tough-mindedness Aggression—In most cultures, it is primarily the men who fight in war and compete in sports and games – Men tend to be physically larger and stronger than women – Men tend to be more aggressive Section 2: Gender Differences GENDER DIFFERENCES

How have some studies indicated gender differences in cognitive abilities, personality, and behavior? – Women act aggressively less often, and when they do, they tend to use indirect forms of aggression If provoked, they are more likely to ignore or end their relationship Some experts believe that gender differences in aggression are primarily due to biological differences between men and women – Aggression has been linked to a high level of testosterone – Most agree that socialization has some play in it Section 2: Gender Differences GENDER DIFFERENCES

How have some studies indicated gender differences in cognitive abilities, personality, and behavior? Communication Styles—a common gender stereotype is that of the “strong, silent” man. Many people believe that women talk more than men do – Research suggests that the opposite is true – Girls tend to be more talkative than boys during early childhood, but by the time they enter school, boys usually dominate class discussions Men are more likely to introduce new topics and to interrupt others Section 2: Gender Differences GENDER DIFFERENCES

How have some studies indicated gender differences in cognitive abilities, personality, and behavior? Men tend to talk less than women do about their feelings and personal experiences – Women often talk with other women—mothers, sisters, roommates, and friends—about intimate matters – Men tend to talk much less about intimate matters, when they do it is generally with a woman Women are better at using and understanding nonverbal communication and more likely to offer understanding and support Section 2: Gender Differences GENDER DIFFERENCES

How have some studies indicated gender differences in cognitive abilities, personality, and behavior? Mate Selection—many physical features, such as cleanliness, complexion, eyes, and hair are found to be universally appealing to both genders – Men tend to be more swayed than women by a partner’s physical appearance – Women tend to place greater emphasis on traits such as profession, consideration, dependability, kindness Women are more willing than men to marry someone who is not good looking and less willing to marry someone who can’t hold a steady job Section 2: Gender Differences GENDER DIFFERENCES

How have some studies indicated gender differences in cognitive abilities, personality, and behavior? Some psychologists believe that men and women originally valued different characteristics in potential mates because they are the traits that help ensure successful reproduction Gender differences in socialization may also influence which traits men and women look for in a mate – Differences between men and women can be found across cultures, but they are diminishing Section 2: Gender Differences GENDER DIFFERENCES

What is gender typing, and what are several theories that explain how it may occur? Gender typing – different theories proposed to explain gender role developments – Research shows that children as young as 21/2 have begun to develop ideas about traits and behaviors they consider characteristic of males and females How and why this occurs is a subject of considerable debate among psychologists Many theories have been developed to explain role development. Two main categories – Biological – Psychological Section 3: Gender Typing GENDER TYPING

What is gender typing, and what are several theories that explain how it may occur? Genetics–genes for traits that help individuals survive and reproduce tend to be passed on to future generations – Men; good visual-spatial skills and aggression – Women; good nonverbal communication skills and nurturance This view is very controversial – Critics argue that cross-cultural research suggests that gender roles are largely learned and not inherited – Genes only determine physical traits such as strength Section 3: Gender Typing Biological Views

What is gender typing, and what are several theories that explain how it may occur? Hormones–gender typing occurs because men and women differ in the organization and functioning of their brains – Sex hormones sculpt the brains of men and women differently before birth Lateralization—(the specialty of each hemisphere of the brain) occurs during fetal development and is affected by sex hormones – Causes male/female left and right brain hemispheres to be organized differently Testosterone affects the right brain development (spatial) Section 3: Gender Typing Biological Views

Some Possible Differences Between Male & Female Preschoolers in Brain Organization & Function Male PreschoolersFemale Preschoolers Prefer blocks and buildingPrefer playing with living things Build high structuresBuild long, low structures Indifferent to newcomersGreet newcomers Prefer stories of adventure Prefer stories about relationships Play more competitive games Play less competitive games Are better visual-spatial learners Are better auditory learners

What is gender typing, and what are several theories that explain how it may occur? Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)– gender typing can be explained in terms of gender identification – Children seek the attention of the parent of the opposite sex and perceive the parent of the same sex a rival – Eventually, boys come to identify with their fathers and girls with their mothers between 3-5 It is through this process that children come to develop the behaviors that are associated with his/her own sex Section 3: Gender Typing Psychological Views

What is gender typing, and what are several theories that explain how it may occur? Problems with the Psychoanalytic Theory The complex feelings that children have for the parent of the opposite sex are not resolved until children reach age five – Children tend to display gender typing by age 21/2 – Even in infancy, boys have been found to be more independent than girls – Between 1-3, girls appear to show preferences for dolls and soft toys whereas boys prefer hard transportation toys Although Freud’s theory has been criticized, it has laid a foundation for other practical theories Section 3: Gender Typing Psychological Views

What is gender typing, and what are several theories that explain how it may occur? Social Learning Theory – gender role behavior is acquired through two different learning processes – reinforcement and modeling – Reinforcement occurs when a behavior has favorable consequences Because it is rewarded, it is more likely to be repeated Behaviors that are not rewarded, or punished are less likely to be repeated – Reinforcement of gender roles starts very early (from birth) Section 3: Gender Typing Psychological Views

What is gender typing, and what are several theories that explain how it may occur? Social Learning Theory – Parents tend to talk and read more to baby girls and fathers often engage in more rough-and- tumble play with boys – Parents are also likely to reward children for behavior they consider appropriate for their gender and punish or ignore behavior considered inappropriate Fathers especially are likely to react negatively when sons play with dolls or other “girl” toys, however they may not respond at all with girls and boy toys Section 3: Gender Typing Psychological Views

What is gender typing, and what are several theories that explain how it may occur? – Aggression provides a good example of how behavior is learned through reinforcement One-year old boys & girls were found to be equally likely to use aggressive actions, such as pushing or grabbing and equally likely to whine or gesture when communicating – Adults’ reactions to their efforts varied greatly depending on the child’s sex Tend to respond positively when girls try to communicate and solve a dispute in a nonaggressive manner, but showed little response when boys did and vise/versa Section 3: Gender Typing Psychological Views

What is gender typing, and what are several theories that explain how it may occur? By age 2, the girls no longer respond aggressively. They learn, through reinforcement, to communicate verbally Boys, on the other hand, learned the opposite. Their level of aggression remained high. – Even in the absence of reinforcement, social learning can occur through observation and imitation of others Known as modeling – Children learn about gender role behavior by observing their parents – Children are more likely to imitate those of the same sex (page 376) Section 3: Gender Typing Psychological Views

What is gender typing, and what are several theories that explain how it may occur? Gender-Schema Theory – children play an important role in developing gender-appropriate behavior by forming their own concepts about gender and then shaping their behavior so that it conforms to their gender concepts – A gender schema is a cluster of physical qualities, behaviors, and personality traits associated with one sex or the other It is argued that because society places so much emphasis on gender, children organize their perceptions along gender lines Section 3: Gender Typing GENDER TYPING THEORIES

What is gender typing, and what are several theories that explain how it may occur? Gender-Schema Theorists suggest that as soon as children learn whether they are boys or girls, they begin to seek information concerning gender-typed traits – Once their gender schema is formed, they try to live up to it Boys may react aggressively when provoked because they perceive that is what society expects males to do. Girls may try to cooperate because they perceive that society expects such behavior from females Section 3: Gender Typing GENDER TYPING THEORIES

What is gender typing, and what are several theories that explain how it may occur? – Across both genders, children’s self-esteem depends in part on how similar their own personalities, behaviors, and physical appearances are to those of the prominent gender schema of their culture Boys who see themselves as fitting their culture’s idea of masculinity are more likely to develop high self-esteem than boys who don’t Girls who see themselves as fitting their culture’s idea of femininity are more likely to develop high self-esteem than those who don’t Section 3: Gender Typing GENDER TYPING THEORIES

How have gender roles changed over time, and in what ways can they vary from culture to culture? In the past, gender roles were more distinct and rigid than they are today. There were distinct female and male worlds that were clearly set apart from each other Women were more restricted in their activity and mobility by childbearing and the need to nurse their young children ●Women stayed home and assumed responsibility for homemaking and child-rearing ●Men, being larger, stronger, and not tied to child bearing and rearing worked outside the home Section 4: Variation in Gender Roles CHANGE IN GENDER ROLES AND VARIATION

How have gender roles changed over time, and in what ways can they vary from culture to culture? Men and women of different cultures could be expected to be aggressive or peaceful In some tribal cultures both men and women were aggressive and fought in wars Cultures may also have different ideas about who should be primarily responsible for raising children In some tribal cultures both men and women are equally responsible for child rearing and maintaining the land Section 4: Variation in Gender Roles CULTURAL VARIATION