Islam: -c. 610 CE an Arab merchant, al-Amin, begins receiving revelations from God (Allah) outside Mecca; becomes Muhammad (“messenger of God”) -these messages form foundation of Islam (submission to God’s will); followers called Muslim (“those who have submitted to God”) -Muhammad's recitations recorded after his death in the Qur'an (“recitation”)—holy book -c. 622, Muhammad preaches from home in Medina, establishing model for 1st mosque (“place of prostration”) -c. 630, Muhammad returns to Mecca and establishes Islam’s spiritual center there -part of 5 pillars of Islamic belief require prayer facing Mecca 5x per day and a pilgrimage to Mecca in the Middle East -Mixing of pilgrims from around the world at Mecca helped contribute to Islam’s eclectic artistic style Ramadan; the month when Muhammad received the revelations written down in the Qur’an 1st mosque based on Muhammad’s house where he spoke directly with his followers, as it was a simple household structure, later mosques do not include the focus on a nave, dome, altar or apse like Classical temples and Christian churches—faithful pray directly to God without the intermediary of a priest -5 pillars of Islamic belief: 1. Proclaim there is only 1 God and Muhammad is his messenger 2. Perform prayer facing Mecca 5 times per day 3. Pay voluntary tax or alms to the church for charity 4. Fast from dusk to dawn during holy month of Ramadan 5. Make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once

Islam spread very rapidly after its introduction in the 600s—furthest extent in Spain in Europe and into Northern Africa and Asia; obviously now a religion practiced globally; but Islamic rule is primarily in the Middle East Title: The Islamic World

aniconism; avoidance of figural imagery arabesques: scrolling vines Title: The Kaaba, Mecca Images shows pilgrims at the Kaaba—holy site in Mecca Kaaba was an older shrine in Mecca believed to be built by Abraham (of Christian and Jewish tradition) When Muhammad returned to Mecca in 630, he removed all old pagan imagery from the Kaaba, instituting Islamic idea of aniconism; avoidance of figural imagery Led to the development of elaborate geometric, abstract and scrolling vine (arabesques) designs in their art The Kaaba, Mecca aniconism; avoidance of figural imagery arabesques: scrolling vines

-After Muhammad’s death, four caliphs (successors) took over the leadership of Islam -the 4th caliph, Ali, provoked a power struggle and was assassinated; his followers are Shiites -Shiites regard Ali as the only “rightly guided” successor to Muhammad -other Muslims recognize all caliphs as “rightly guided” successors and are called Sunnis Timeline: c. 661 – 750; Umayyad dynasty ruled from Damascus in Syria c. 750 – 1258; Abbasid dynasty ruled from Bagdad in Iraq c. 750 – 1031; Umayyad rule continues from Cordoba, Spain c. 1055 – 1194; Sajuq rulers unite Iran and Iraq; hold rule in Anatolia until late 1200s c. early 1200s; Muslim world splintered by invading Mongol Genghis Khan c. 1300s; Ottomans take over; conquer Constantinople in 1453 ending Byzantine empire c. 1492; Muslim rule in Spain ends c. 1918; end of Ottoman empire in Near East

Aerial view of Haram Al-Sharif, (the Dome of the Rock) Jerusalem Islamic Architecture Aerial view of Haram Al-Sharif, (the Dome of the Rock) Jerusalem -completed 692 Title: Aerial view of Haram Al-Sharif, Jerusalem gold-domes shrine fact that it is also important to the Jews and Christians (believed site of the creation of Adam) shows Muslim belief that it completes the prophecies of those faiths and supersedes them Dome of the Rock -built to house the rock that is believed to be the site of the Jewish 2nd temple -1st great monument in Islamic art; announces the arrival of that tradition in Jerusalem -there, Muslims believe Muhammad ascended to the presence of God

Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem (interior) Title: Cutaway drawing of the Dome of the Rock; Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem (interior) built by Syrian artists trained in the Byzantine tradition; -piers and columns alternate around the central box, holding the rock -text is used around the frieze inside, and under the dome—oldest surviving written Qur’an verses and 1st use of writing in monumental architecture; common for Muslim architecture from now on

The mosaics in the Dome of the Rock contain no human figures or animals

Looking down on the rock (Sakhrah) in the center of the Dome of the Rock (photo: Library of Congress)

Hypostyle Mosque -most early mosques originally built on simple, hypostyle plan with alternating rows of aisles and columns; easily expandable -qibla wall: wall of the mosque nearest to Mecca (direction of prayers) -qibla walls are indicated by the mihrab niche (a depression in the wall based on the tradition of niches holding scrolls or sacred statues in other religions) Qibla = kibla (like kibbles) Mihrab = me rob minaret; huge tower from which the faithful are called to pray; also indicated presence of Islam in a town Title: Elements of Architecture: Mosque Plans (Hypostyle Mosque) Source/Museum: Hypostyle mosque: Great Mosque, Cordoba, after extension by al-Hakam II

Interior of the prayer hall at the Great Mosque in Cordoba Spain -Cordoba in Spain is the location of the capital of western Islamic leadership after the early Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by the Abbasids (who ruled from Bagdad in Iraq for 500 years) -this mosque is one of the finest surviving examples of Umayyad architecture -built on site of an earlier Christian church -the white stone and red brick voissoirs (alternating colors) was adopted from Roman and Byzantine precedents, -columns are taken from variety of other older sources, so they vary in height and style slightly voissoirs (alternating colors), make colorful and dramatic interior; columns are taken from variety of other sources, so vary in height slightly Title: Prayer Hall, Great Mosque, Cordoba, Spain Date: Begun 785–86 Prayer Hall, Great Mosque, Cordoba, Spain Begun 785–86

-prayer hall of Great Mosque shows horse-shoe arches -from Roman times, but become closely associate with Islamic architecture -muqarnas; an arch filled with stacked, non-load bearing, vault-like niches. -unique to Islam Title: Elements of Architecture: Arches and Muqarnas Source/Museum: Arches and Muqarnas: horseshoe arch, pointed arch, muqarnas Elements of Architecture: Arches and Muqarnas

Dome in front of the Mihrab, Great Mosque in Cordoba; 965 (crisscrossing ribs that create pointed arches all lavishly covered with gold mosaic in a radial pattern) -Great Mosque in Cordoba continued to be built on after its initial beginning -dome in front of the mihrab shows Islamic interest in mathematics and geometry as a source of artistic inspiration -mosaics were made by a Byzantine master who was sent by the emperor in Constantinople; shows artistic exchange that was emblematic of the Mediterranean region dome shows ribbed dome on a web of criss-crossing arches, unlike previous examples of domes we’ve seen Title: Dome in front of the Mihrab, Great Mosque Date: 965

-later mosque style developed in Iran Four-Iwan Mosque -later mosque style developed in Iran -features 4 iwans (huge barrel-vaulted halls with wide arched entrances) that face each other across a central courtyard Title: Elements of Architecture: Mosque Plans (Four-Iwan Mosque) Source/Museum: Four-iwan mosque: Congresgrational Mosque, Isfahan

Courtyard, Congregational Mosque, Isfahan, Iran 11th–18th century -example of an earlier hypostyle mosque that was built onto to create an iwan mosque -iwans added in 1100s -tile around the courtyard is from the 1600s -many changes made to the mosque throughout the centuries reflect its continuing importance to its community Title: Courtyard, Masjid-I Jami, Isfahan Iran Date: 11th–18th century 14th-century iwan vault, 17th-century minarets Source/Museum: Iran

-now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York -mihrab from 1300s was in the mosque’s madrasa (building for teaching Islamic theology and law) -now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York -shows some of the finest early architectural ceramic decoration in Islamic art; -contrasting colors and dense pattern are typical of the art form Title: Tile Mosaic Mihrab, from the Madrasa Imami, Isfahan Medium: Glazed and cut tiles Size: 11'3" X 7'6" (3.43 X 2.29 m) Date: Founded 1354 Source/Museum: Iran. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Harris Brisbane Dick Fund (39.20) Tile Mosaic Mihrab, from the Madrasa Imami, Isfahan Glazed and cut tiles 11'3" X 7'6" 354 Iran.

mihrab minbar c. 1000s; Muslim patrons began to fund charitable complexes that housed mosques, schools (madrasas) as public displays of piety and a show of wealth and status iwan style allowed each iwan to serve as a classroom for a different branch of study created combined madrasa-mausoleum-mosque complexes; established in 1300s by this complex in Cairo excessive in its vast scale and opulent decoration; but money no object as it was funded by the estates of victims of the bubonic plaque in Egypt in the mid 1300s the qibla-iwan (iwan with the qibla wall) served as the prayer hall for the complex and the patron’s monumental domed tomb stands just behind it minbar: pulpit; stands next to the mihrab as a place for the prayer leader and symbol of authority Title: Qibla wall with mihrab and minbar, Sultan Hasan Madrasa-Mausoleum-Mosque Complex Date: 1356–63 Source/Museum: Main iwan (vaulted chamber) in the mosque, Cairo, Egypt Qibla wall with mihrab and minbar, Sultan Hasan Madrasa-Mausoleum-Mosque Complex; 1356–63

Church of Hagia Sophia; 532–37 after Ottomans (Muslim Turks from NW area of Anatolia) conquer Constantinople in 1453, the church of Hagia Sophia (huge dome) in Constantinople is transformed into a mosque; church mosaics destroyed or white washed and Islamic scripts put up (neither religion now—it’s a state museum) royal Muslim architect Sinan decides to make a dome mosque more spectacular than Hagia Sophia and works with the domed central mosque plan; above; already developed by Ottoman architects Title: Elements of Architecture: Mosque Plans (Centrally-Planned Mosque) Source/Museum: Centrally-planned mosque: Sultan Selim Mosque, Edirne Centrally-Planned Mosque

Mosque of Sultan Selim, Edirne; 1568–75; Turkey Sinan builds this mosque in Turkey Hagia Sophia inspired him to strive for more ambitious scale than previous central plan mosques dome is more than 102 ft in diameter 8 piers that bear the domes weight are visible inside and out; revealing structural logic of the building Title: Mosque of Sultan Selim, Edirne Date: 1568–75 Source/Museum: Turkey Mosque of Sultan Selim, Edirne; 1568–75; Turkey

Interior, Mosque of Sultan Selim interior clearly inspired by Hagia Sophia, but lacks the pull from entrance to sanctuary—instead at the center is a platform covering a small fountain, to emphasize centralization Title: Interior, Mosque of Sultan Selim Source/Museum: Turkey Interior, Mosque of Sultan Selim

Court of the Lions, Palace of the Lions; Alhambra, Granada Muslim architects also created luxurious palaces set in gardens for their Sultans; like this one in Spain outstanding example of beautiful and refined Islamic palace architecture to conquering Christians in late 1400s, this place represented the height of luxury—preserved it as a testament to their defeat of Islam and for its beauty palace of the lions was private retreat for the Sultan; courtyard is divided in 4 with water channels running away from the central fountain Title: Court of the Lions, Palace of the Lions, Alhambra, Granada Date: 1354–91 Source/Museum: Spain Court of the Lions, Palace of the Lions; Alhambra, Granada 1354–9; Spain

-ceiling is carved stucco -uses squinches -square room rises to an 8-point star pierced by 18 windows that culminate in a burst of carved muquarnas (small niches) -shapes are visible, but not really discernable; like the heavens this dome is in the Winter Reception and Music Hall on the south side of the Court of Lions has excellent acoustics Title: Muqarnas Dome, Hall of the Abencerrajes, Palace of the Lions, Alhambra Date: Built between 1354–91 Muqarnas Dome, Hall of the Abencerrajes, Palace of the Lions, Alhambra; Built between 1354–91

Calligraphy: art of fine hand lettering -since the Qur’an is the word of God, it must be recorded carefully, with devotion and embellishment -developed into an impressive art form in the Islamic world and was the most highly regarded craft -outstanding calligraphers received public recognition for and signed their work -writing used on buildings, metalwork, textiles and ceramics, in addition to books and documents -Arabic; language of the Qur’an and a powerful unifying force within Islam; universal language from 8th through 11th centuries among scholars in the Islamic world and in some Christian lands -written from right to left (not left to right, like us) -earliest example of calligraphy on buildings is inside the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem since there was a prohibition against figurative imagery, inscription was the chief vehicle for communication in Islamic art learning to be a scribe meant learning secret formulas for inks and paints; learning how to sit, breathe, and work with the tools in the proper ways; also had to learn complex literary traditions and number symbolism that developed in Islamic culture; training was long and difficult written on parchment until c. 1000 when Muslims developed rag based paper that largely replaced the costly parchment; this cheaper material encouraged the proliferation of increasingly elaborate and decorative cursive scripts

Page from the Qur'an in kufic script strong vertical and horizontal arrangement of Arabic letters lent itself to many variations in calligraphic style formal style; Kufic (named for Kufa, city in Iraq) is blocky and angular strong upright strokes and long horizontals most early Qur’ans done in kufic with only 3 to 5 lines of text per page the above style common from 8th to 10th centuries (700 to 900) red dots are pronunciation guides the “chapter” title in included in the gold banner, which along with the round seal indicates a chapter break instead of page numbers Title: Page from the Qur'an (Surah II: 286 and Title Surah III) in kufic script Medium: Black ink pigments, and gold on vellum Size: 8⅜ X 11⅛" Date: 9th century Source/Museum: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Rogers Fund, 1937 (37.99.2) Page from the Qur'an in kufic script Black ink pigments, and gold on vellum; 8⅜ X 11⅛“; 9th century

-shows kufic headings in a background of scrolling vines; naskhi: ornamental form of calligraphy said to have been given to scribes in a vision -shows kufic headings in a background of scrolling vines; -actual text (a medical treatise) written horizontally and vertically in naskhi Artist: Attributed to Galinus Title: Arabic manuscript page Date: 1199 Source/Museum: Iraq. / Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris Attributed to Galinus Arabic manuscript page 1199

-tugras appeared on coins, buildings, and official documents -during Ottoman empire artists developed imperial ciphers (tugras) which combined the ruler’s name and title with the motto “eternally victorious” -made a monogram used to denote the authority of the sultan and of those officials who were also granted an emblem -tugras appeared on coins, buildings, and official documents -drawn in black or blue with 3 long vertical strokes to the right of 2 concentric teardrops -decorative foliage patterns fill the space; later decorations become more naturalistic and even spill outside the lines -blue and white floral decoration may show influence from blue and white Chinese pottery title: Illuminated Tugra of Sultan Suleyman Medium: Ink, paint, and gold on paper Size: removed from a firman and trimmed to 20½ X 25⅜" (52 X 64.5 cm) Date: c. 1555–60 Source/Museum: Istanbul, Turkey. / The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Rogers Fund, 1938 (38.149.1) Illuminated Tugra of Sultan Suleyman; Ink, paint, and gold on paper; 20½ X 25⅜“; c. 1555–60

-silks highly sought after Textiles -important means of disseminating the Islamic artistic style throughout the rest of the world -silks highly sought after textile and rug work some of most well-known examples of Islamic art in the West actively traded both within the Islamic world and with other cultures in the Medieval Mediterranean area; significant portion of dowries and inheritances this silk probably brought from the Near East to France during the time of the 1st Crusades (early 1000s)—many Islamic textiles were preserved in Medieval churches where they were used as parts of priests robes shows 2 elephants facing each other with mythical griffins between their feet inscription on bottom is upside down suggesting this portion is from a larger, more complex textile design derived from Persian area, who had adapted Chinese silk technology to make designs that suited the Persian taste for paired heraldic beasts facing each other (think art of ancient Near East) depiction of animals became less naturalistic after the Islamic conquest of Persia (Iran) Title: Textile with elephants and camels (known today as the Shroud of Saint Josse) Medium: Dyed silk Size: largest fragment 20½ X 37" (94 X 52 cm) Date: Before 961 Source/Museum: From Khurasan or Central Asia. / Musée du Louvre, Paris. Textile with elephants and camels; Dyed silk; largest fragment 20½ X 37“; pre 961

-art of book production flourished from the 1st century of Islam Manuscripts -art of book production flourished from the 1st century of Islam -books made for secular and religious purposes -emphasis on the study of the Qur’an meant there was a high level of literacy among both men and women -non-figural, geometric and botanical designs created for Qur’ans led to intricate and lovely designs for books the fact that this page from the Qur’an resembles a carpet design is probably because designers worked in a variety of media and gave their designs to craftsman to execute scribes copied and recopied all kinds of texts and illustrated them; also made small scale individual paintings that were collected by the wealthy and put in albums Title: Qur’an frontispiece (right half of two-page spread) Medium: Ink, pigments, and gold on paper Size: 24 X 18" (61 X 45.7 cm) Date: c. 1368 Source/Museum: Cairo, Egypt. / National Library, Cairo. Ms. 7. Qur’an frontispiece (right half of two-page spread) Ink, pigments, and gold on paper 24 X 18" c. 1368

manuscript painters also made small paintings, miniatures, that were collected in albums most famous miniature school was in Herat in western Afganistan leader of the school was Kamal al-Din Bihzad; who painted scene on left images show teacher’s ability to paint human figure convincingly; left shows caliph Harun al-Rashid visiting a bath house (important social center for Muslims, usually located near a mosque as part of the commercial facility that helped support the mosque); asymmetry of the scene is balanced by the strong colors and placement of architectural ornaments w/in the image on right; slightly earlier scene from same school; feature a princess finding a portrait of a man that she falls in love with Chinese style cloud in the sky Artist: Kamal al-Din Bihzad Title: The Caliph Harun Al-Rashid Visits the Turkish Bath Medium: Ink and pigments on paper Size: approx. 7 X 6" (17.8 X 15.3 cm) Date: c. 1494 Source/Museum: From a copy of the 12th-century Khamsa (Five Poems) of Nizami. Herat, Afghanistan. / The British Library, London. Oriental and India office Collections (Ms. Or. 6810, fol. 27v) Title: The Portrait of Khusrau Shown to Shirin Medium: Ink, pigments, and gold on paper Size: 9⅞ X 6¾" (25 X 17 cm) Source/Museum: From a copy of the 12th-century Khamsa (Five Poems) of Nizami.Herat, Afghanistan. / The British Library, London Kamal al-Din Bihzad; The Caliph Harun Al-Rashid Visits the Turkish Bath; Ink and pigments on paper approx. 7 X 6“; c. 1494 The Portrait of Khusrau Shown to Shirin; Ink, pigments, and gold on paper 9⅞ X 6¾“; c. 1494 From a copy of the 12th-century Khamsa (Five Poems) of Nizami.Herat, Afghanistan

Other luxury wares/portable goods -Islamic artists excelled in creating small luxury goods -this bowl, called Samarkand ware because of the region (now Uzbekistan) where it was originally made -covered in white slip to imitate prized Chinese porcelain -shows kufic calligraphy around the outside rim; -used popular sayings like this one that said “knowledge: the beginning is bitter to taste, but the end is sweeter than honey.” Title: Bowl with kufic border Medium: Earthenware with slip, pigment, and lead glaze Size: diameter 14½" (37 cm) Date: 9th–10th century Source/Museum: Samarkand, Uzbekistan. / Musée du Louvre, Paris. Bowl with kufic border Earthenware with slip, pigment, and lead glaze diameter 14½“; 9th–10th century

Griffin; Bronze; height 42⅛“; 11th century Metalwork Pen Box; Brass with inlaid silver, copper, and black organic material; height 2", length 12⅝", width 2½" 1210–11 Islamic metalworkers learned skills from Roman, Byzantine and Persian predecessors; applied skills to new forms like incense burners and water pitchers in the shapes of animals and birds large cast bronze griffin; example of fanciful metalwork; belly incised with kufic and feather, scale and silk trappings; perhaps originally used as a fountain pen box inlaid with silver; common to make such portable luxury good for educated people—contained pen, ink and blotting paper shows scrolls, calligraphy, and human and animal figures in the script the maker of the box signed and dated it, making it one of the earliest signed artworks in Islamic art Artist: By Shazi Title: Pen Box Medium: Brass with inlaid silver, copper, and black organic material Size: height 2", length 12⅝", width 2½" (5 X 31.4 X 6.4 cm) Date: 1210–11 Source/Museum: From Iran or Afghanistan. / Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (F1936.7) Title: Griffin Medium: Bronze Size: height 42⅛" (107 cm) Date: 11th century Source/Museum: Islamic Mediterranean, probably Fatimid, Egypt. / Museo dell’ Opera del Duomo, Pisa Griffin; Bronze; height 42⅛“; 11th century Islamic Mediterranean, probably Fatimid, Egypt

-mosques required hundreds of lamps and there were hundreds of mosques -during the 13th and 14th cent, glass workers in Syria, Egypt and Italy developed new thinness in glass ware through blowing and molding techniques -Islamic artists in Egypt especially excelled in the application of enameled surface decoration in gold and various colors -this image shows a glass lamp that would have hung in a mosque and been lit from within by oil and a wick—hung from chains through the handles -mosques required hundreds of lamps and there were hundreds of mosques glass making was a booming industry Title: Mamluk glass oil lamp Medium: Glass, polychrome enamel, and gold Size: height 12" (30.5 cm) Date: c. 1355 Source/Museum: Syria or Egypt. Corning Museum of Glass, Corning, New York. (52.1.86) Mamluk glass oil lamp Glass, polychrome enamel, and gold height 12“; c. 1355 Syria or Egypt

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