Chapter 8 Sex and Gender

The Hijras of India An ambiguous gender role in India Though born male, they are considered neither man nor woman Hijras undergo an operation in which their genitals are surgically removed The operation is a rebirth Carried out as an act of devotion to the Hindu Mother Goddess After the operation, hijras are believed to incorporate the goddess’ powers of procreation Their presence is required at weddings and at the birth of a child Present to confer blessings

Hijra Identity Hijras identify with an ambiguous gender role and figure in Hindu mythology Male deities who change into females temporarily Deities with both male and female characteristics

Beyond Male and Female Many societies offer cultural support to individuals who bridge gender differences Societies other than Hindu India: Mahu of Polynesia Xanith of Oman on the Saudi Arabian peninsula Some Native American tribes Kathoey of Thailand

Sex and Gender Sex - the biological differences between male and female Gender - the social classification of masculine and feminine Gender is culturally constructed and extraordinarily diverse Gender ideology – a society's totality of ideas about sex, gender and the natures of men and women, including their sexuality, and the relations between the genders Gender Stratification - ways gendered activities and attributes are related to the distribution of resources, prestige, and power in a society

Margaret Mead Developed the central anthropological principle that gender is a cultural construction Key findings in three New Guinean societies Arapesh Both sexes acted in ways Americans consider “feminine” Mundugamor Both sexes acted in ways Americans consider “masculine” Tchambuli Men acted in ways Americans consider “feminine” and women acted in ways Americans consider “masculine”

Bullfighting in Spain From an emic point of view, bullfighting is an aesthetic ritual expressing male gender value The ritualized violence is carried out with grace, skill, and courage The male matador is the central element; he should be able to kill the bull quickly with elegance and poise and distinguish himself as a “man of honor”

Rugby In Tonga Introduced to Tonga (Polynesian sovereign island) in the early 20th century Now almost all Tongan boys play rugby from early childhood Rugby is essential in male socialization It provides skills and the ability to learn resourcefulness It contains the Tongan male ideals: Virility Fortitude Controlled aggression

Sexuality and Homosexuality Sexual norms affect sexual behavior. Cultures differ in: Age that sexuality begins and ends Ways people make themselves attractive Importance of sexual activity Homosexuality Adolescent boys in Sambia have homosexual relations as part of an initiation, but enter heterosexual marriages as adults In the United States, consistent heterosexuality is often considered essential to masculine identity

Cultural Sexual Behaviors Cultures vary in what is considered erotic Before the Tahitians learned to kiss from the Europeans, they began sexual intimacy by sniffing The Trobriand Islanders inspected each other for lice if they felt fond of each other

Ireland: Inis Beag Society One of the “most sexually naïve of the world’s societies” Women are expected to “endure” sex Refusing intercourse is a mortal sin Culturally patterned sexual repression Absence of sexual foreplay Belief that sexual activity weakens men Absence of premarital sex High percentage of celibate males Extraordinarily late age of marriage

Polynesia: Mangaia Adolescent boys are given sexual instruction and an experience with a woman in the village Practically every girl and boy has had intercourse before marriage Female frigidity, male celibacy, and homosexuality are practically unknown

Male Initiation Rites Often a form of cultural validation of male dominance Legitimizing the change in status from child to adult Involve an extended period of separation Initiates learn the beliefs, skills, and knowledge necessary to participate as a functioning adult in society

Proving Manhood Anthropologist David Gilmore Manhood Puzzle The widespread male need to publicly test and prove one’s manhood. Cultural patterns of proving manhood help ensure men will fulfill roles as procreators, providers, and protectors This is at the heart of the the masculine role and accounts for its intensity, near universality, and persistence

Female Initiation Rites Generally performed at menarche First menstruation Occur in more societies than male initiation rites Research indicates cross-cultural variability Sometimes the initiate is isolated from society, other times she is the center of attention Some rituals are elaborate and take years to perform, others are performed with little ceremony

Private/Public Dichotomy Gender system Women’s status is lowered by their cultural identification with the home and children (private) Men are identified with prestigious economic and political roles (public) Emphasizes the degree to which women control the distribution and exchange of goods and services outside the domestic unit

Gender Relations in Foraging Societies Gender relations are egalitarian Women and men can achieve prestige through their own efforts Sexual division of labor is not rigid Women often act as negotiators and hand the money for long-distance trade

Tlingit of the Northwest Coast Pacific Northwest Some women are heads of clans or tribes Ideal marriage is between a man and woman of equal rank Roles are structured based on ability, training, and personality rather than gender

Gender Relations in Horticultural Societies High degree of segregation between the sexes Myths Often used to “explain” why women are socially inferior to men and why men and women have different roles

Gender Relations in Pastoral and Agricultural Societies Tend to be male dominated Though there is some variation Pastoral societies Women’s status depends on the degree to which the society combines herding with cultivation, its specific historical situation, and the diffusion of cultural ideas

Gender Relations in the Global Economy Women’s status in modern societies varies and is affected by economic development, political ideology, and globalization Example: Peru Mata Chico in the 1930s The only way for women to get access to land was to marry. 1980s Peru was urbanized and many occupations were available to men and women Since women could support themselves and their children, they remained single longer and, in some cases, chose not to marry

Gender Relations in the Global Economy United States The view that women should be excluded from all but domestic and child rearing roles has historically been culturally dominant Remains so among many Americans More women than men may go to medical school, but they tend to take on less prestigious specializations after graduation Domestic violence and sexual harassment are significant problems based on a cultural pattern that values control over women

Violence against Women: the Cultural Defense An international problem Domestic violence is considered acceptable in many patriarchal societies even though it is illegal Patriarchies Sometimes use the “cultural defense” to explain behavior United States The “cultural defense” does not usually work as explanation for violence against women, although at times it has been attempted and anthropologists have been involved There is some questions about the ethics of anthropological participation in cases such as this

You Decide! Given the dominant anthropological view that culture is diverse, dynamic, multifaceted, and shapes (but does not determine) behavior, what role, if any, do you think the cultural defense should be permitted to play in criminal cases involving domestic violence? What might be the most effective way of using anthropological expertise to decrease the rate of domestic violence in our own society or other cultures?