Research Methods (CS) Introduction to Science Scientific Thinking and the Scientific Method

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 2 What is Knowledge? (i) expertise, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject, (ii) what is known in a particular field or in total; facts and information or (iii) awareness or familiarity gained by experience of a fact or situation.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 3 Introduction to Science Definition of Science: 1. the systematic observation of natural events and conditions in order to discover facts about them and to formulate laws and principles based on these facts. 2. the organized body of knowledge that is derived from such observations and that can be verified or tested by further investigation. (Academic Press Dictionary of Science & Technology)

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 4 Introduction to Science Definition of Science: Science is an intellectual activity carried on by humans that is designed to discover information about the natural world in which humans live and to discover the ways in which this information can be organized into meaningful patterns. A primary aim of science is to collect facts (data). An ultimate purpose of science is to discern (distinguish) the order that exists between and amongst the various facts. (Dr. Sheldon Gottlieb in a lecture series at the University of South Alabama )a lecture series at the University of South Alabama

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 5 Introduction to Science Definition of Science: i) Science is a method of investigating nature--a way of knowing about nature-that discovers reliable knowledge about it. In other words, science is a method of discovering reliable knowledge about nature. And science is the only method that results in the acquisition of reliable knowledge

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 6 Reliable Knowledge Reliable Knowledge: knowledge that has a high probability of being true because its veracity (authenticity) has been justified by a reliable method. Reliable knowledge is sometimes called justified true belief (highest degree of certainty), to distinguish reliable knowledge from belief that is false and unjustified or even true but unjustified.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 7 Scientific and Critical thinking Scientific thinking : When one uses the scientific method to study or investigate nature or the universe, one is practicing scientific thinking. All scientists practice scientific thinking, of course, since they are actively studying nature and investigating the universe by using the scientific method.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 8 Scientific and Critical thinking Critical thinking : Critical thinking is thinking correctly for oneself that successfully leads to the most reliable answers to questions and solutions to problems.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 9 Scientific and Critical thinking Critical thinking (cont..) : Critical thinking gives us reliable knowledge about all aspects of our life and society (like studying history or literature, investigating societies or governments, seeking solutions to problems of economics or philosophy, or just trying to answer personal questions about oneself or the meaning of existence), and is not restricted to the formal study of nature only.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 10 Scientific and Critical thinking: Scientific thinking is identical in theory and practice to critical thinking, but the term would be used to describe the method that gives you reliable knowledge about the natural world. While the term Critical thinking would be used to get knowledge about different aspects of life like history or literature, economics and philosophy etc. And is not restricted to the formal study of nature only.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 11 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking Scientific (and critical) thinking is based on three components: i) empiricism ii) rationalism iii) skepticism

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 12 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking i) Empiricism: The Use of Empirical Evidence: Empirical evidence is evidence that one can see, hear, touch, taste, or smell – (Observable); - It is an evidence that is susceptible to one's senses and is repeatable. -Empirical evidence is the only type of evidence that possesses these attributes and is therefore the only type used by scientists and critical thinkers to make vital decisions and reach sound conclusions.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 13 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking i) Empiricism: The Use of Empirical Evidence: Other types of evidences: a) Hearsay evidence is what someone says they heard another say; it is not reliable because you cannot check its source. b) Testimonial evidence, which, unlike hearsay evidence, is allowed in courts of law. But even testimonial evidence is notoriously unreliable, as numerous studies have shown.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 14 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking i) Empiricism: The Use of Empirical Evidence: Other types of evidences: c) Revelatory evidence or revelation is what someone says was revealed to them by some deity or supernatural power; it is not reliable because it cannot be checked by others and is not repeatable. d) Emotional evidence is evidence derived from one's subjective feelings; such evidence is often repeatable, but only for one person, so it is unreliable.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 15 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking i) Empiricism: The Use of Empirical Evidence: Other types of evidences: e) Spectral evidence is evidence supposedly manifested by ghosts, spirits, and other paranormal or supernatural entities. (Not acceptable) d) The most common alternative to empirical evidence, authoritarian evidence, is what authorities (people, books, billboards, television commercials, etc.) tell you to believe. (cont..)

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 16 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking i) Empiricism: The Use of Empirical Evidence: Other types of evidences: d) Authoritarian evidence (cont..): Sometimes, if the authority is reliable, authoritarian evidence is reliable evidence, but many authorities are not reliable, so you must check the reliability of each authority before you accept its evidence. In the end, you must be your own authority and rely on your own powers of critical thinking to know if what you believe is reliably true.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 17 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking i) Empiricism: The Use of Empirical Evidence: Other types of evidences: Reasons for Authoritarian evidence: a) first, we are all conditioned from birth by our parents through the use of positive and negative reinforcement to listen to, believe, and obey authorities; b) second, authoritarian instruction is the quickest and most efficient method for transmitting information we know about.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 18 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking i) Empiricism: The Use of Empirical Evidence: Other types of evidences: Reasons for Authoritarian evidence: c) third, it is believed that human societies that relied on a few experienced or trained authorities for decisions that affected all had a higher survival value than those that didn't, and thus the behavioral trait of susceptibility to authority was strengthened and passed along to future generations by natural selection.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 19 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking i) Empiricism: The Use of Empirical Evidence: Other types of evidences: Authoritarian evidence: remember: some authoritarian evidence and knowledge should be validated by empirical evidence, logical reasoning, and critical thinking before you should consider it reliable, and, in most cases, only you can do this for yourself.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 20 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking i) Empiricism: The Use of Empirical Evidence: Other types of evidences: Authoritarian evidence: remember: some authoritarian evidence and knowledge should be validated by empirical evidence, logical reasoning, and critical thinking before you should consider it reliable, and, in most cases, only you can do this for yourself. USE EMPIRICAL METHODS TO PROVE.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 21 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking ii) Rationalism: The Practice of Logical Reasoning - Logic allows us to reason correctly. - complex topic and not easily learned - Can not be done without learning - Logic sometimes forces one to deny one's emotions and face reality, and this is often painful. - emotions are not evidence, feelings are not facts, and subjective beliefs are not substantive beliefs.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 22 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking ii) Rationalism: The Practice of Logical Reasoning - The best way to learn to think logically is to: a) study logic and reasoning in a philosophy class b) take mathematics and science courses that force you to use logic c) read great literature and study history d) write frequently.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 23 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking iii) Skepticism (doubting): Possessing a Skeptical Attitude - The final key idea in science and critical thinking is skepticism, the constant questioning of your beliefs and conclusions. - Self-deception and deception of yourself by others are two of the most common human failings. - The only way to escape both deception by others and the far more common trait of self-deception is to repeatedly and rigorously examine your basis for holding your beliefs

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 24 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking iii) Skepticism (doubting): Possessing a Skeptical Attitude - You must question the truth and reliability of both the knowledge claims of others and the knowledge you already possess. -One way to do this is to test your beliefs against objective reality by predicting the consequences or logical outcomes of your beliefs and the actions that follow from your beliefs. If the logical consequences of your beliefs match objective reality--as measured by empirical evidence--you can conclude that your beliefs are reliable knowledge (that is, your beliefs have a high probability of being true)

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 25 The Three Central Components of Scientific and Critical Thinking iii) Skepticism (doubting): Possessing a Skeptical Attitude - You must question the truth and reliability of both the knowledge claims of others and the knowledge you already possess. -One way to do this is to test your beliefs against objective reality by predicting the consequences or logical outcomes of your beliefs and the actions that follow from your beliefs. If the logical consequences of your beliefs match objective reality--as measured by empirical evidence--you can conclude that your beliefs are reliable knowledge (that is, your beliefs have a high probability of being true)

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 26 Scientific Methods in Practice Elements of Scientific method Empirical approach Pre-Observations Questions Observations Hypotheses Experiments Analysis Conclusions Replication

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 27 Scientific Methods in Practice Elements of Scientific method Empirical approach: - Proof are required to consider something true or false. - The scientific method is firmly based on the empirical approach. The empirical approach is an evidence-based approach that relies on direct observation and experimentation in the acquisition of new knowledge. In the empirical approach, scientific decisions are made based on the data derived from direct observation and experimentation.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 28 Scientific Methods in Practice Elements of Scientific method Pre-Observations: - In the context of science, observation means more than just observing the world around us to get ideas for research. Observation also refers to the process of making careful and accurate measurements, which is a distinguishing feature of well-conducted scientific investigations. When making measurements in the context of research, scientists typically take great precautions to avoid making biased observations.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 29 Scientific Methods in Practice Elements of Scientific method Question: - After getting a research idea, perhaps from making observations of the world around us, the next step in the research process involves translating that research idea into an answerable question. The term “answerable” is particularly important in this respect, and it should not be overlooked.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 30 Scientific Methods in Practice Elements of Scientific method Observations: -One must next gather relevant information to attempt to answer the question or solve the problem by making observations. - These observations, and all that follow, must be empirical in nature--that is, they must be sensible, measurable, and repeatable, so that others can make the same observations.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 31 Scientific Methods in Practice Elements of Scientific method Hypothesis: - Now one can propose a solution or answer to the problem or question. In science, this suggested solution or answer is called a scientific hypothesis, and this is one of the most important steps a scientist can perform, because the proposed hypothesis must be stated in such a way that it is testable. A scientific hypothesis is an informed, testable, and predictive solution to a scientific problem that explains a natural phenomenon, process, or event..

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 32 Scientific Methods in Practice Elements of Scientific method Hypothesis (cont..): A Hypothesis is simply an educated—and testable—guess about the answer to your research question (A Myth).

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 33 Scientific Methods in Practice Elements of Scientific method Experiments: - After articulating the hypothesis, the next step involves actually conducting the experiment (or research study). - one must test the hypothesis before it is corroborated and given any real validity. - How? Experiment OR further observations if phenomenon is not experimentable (space).

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 34 Scientific Methods in Practice Elements of Scientific method Analysis: - After conducting the study and gathering the data, the next step involves analyzing the data, which generally calls for the use of statistical techniques. The type of statistical techniques used by a researcher depends on the design of the study, the type of data being gathered, and the questions being asked.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 35 Scientific Methods in Practice Elements of Scientific method Analysis: - After conducting the study and gathering the data, the next step involves analyzing the data, which generally calls for the use of statistical techniques. The type of statistical techniques used by a researcher depends on the design of the study, the type of data being gathered, and the questions being asked.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 36 Scientific Methods in Practice Elements of Scientific method Conclusions: - We conclude the results. - It is important that researchers make only those conclusions that can be supported by the data analyses. Going beyond the data is a cardinal sin that researchers must be careful to avoid.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 37 Scientific Methods in Practice Elements of Scientific method Replication: -One of the most important elements of the scientific method is replication. Replication essentially means conducting the same research study a second time with another group of participants to see whether the same results are obtained.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 38 Requirement of Science Derived from observations Can be verified or tested by further investigation..

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 39 To do science? To do science is to search for repeated patterns to enhance knowledge, not simply to accumulate facts.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 40 What Science is not? a) Science is not Art. Art is Individualistic, Aesthetic, Beautiful. Science is an attempt to find demonstrable, replicable conclusions that are presented to others with EVIDENCES. Not necessarily beautiful.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 41 What Science is not? b) Science is not Technology. - Scientists are in the business of generating knowledge, whereas engineers are in the business of generating technology. - Example: Scientists developed the understanding of radiation sufficient for the invention of the microwave oven While Engineers developed Microwave Oven.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 42 What Science is not? c) Science is not Truth. "The evidence suggests that..." or "Our current understanding is...". Because Scientific theories change with new studies.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 43 What Science is not? d) Science is not religion. Science uses physical evidence to answer its questions and relies on modern humans to make inferences from that evidence. Religions, on the other hand, based upon faith and belief and commonly use divine inspiration, interpretation of ancient texts, and (in some cases) personal insight as the source of the answers to their questions.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 44 Philosophy of Science Aim of Modern Science: - Why do science? - Motivation (Discovering, Proving, Disproving, Explaining) - Scientific Discovery: The Process of developing new theories. - Scientific Criticism: The criteria scientists use for assessment of theories. - Scientific Explanation: The end product of basic science.

6/22/2016Muhammad Imran Saeed, DCS, IIUI 45 Referneces and Reading Material References and reading material: a) An Introduction to Science: Scientific Thinking and the Scientific Method by Steven D. Schafersman January, b) What is Science? c) What Science is’nt?