The effect of infant attachment. (i) Infant attachment studies. Early infant attachment is important in laying the foundation for the future formation of stable relationships. (ii)Socialisation and learning. Humans have a long period of dependency on adults providing time for socialisation and learning to occur. Authoritative control generally results in greater social competence than permissive control. (b) The effect of communication. (i)The importance of non-verbal communication in the formation of relationships between individuals and can signal attitudes and emotions as well as acting as an aid to verbal communication.. Verbal communication is used in the transmission of knowledge, development of culture and social evolution. (c) The effect of experience. Learning is a change in behaviour as a result of experience. (i) The repeated use of a motor skill results in a motor pathway being established. (ii) Imitation. Human behaviour may be learned by observation and imitation. (iii) Reinforcement, shaping and extinction of behaviour as seen in trial and error learning The effect of group behaviour and social influence. (i) Social facilitation. Increased performance in competitive situations. (ii) De-individuation. Loss of personal identity in a group leading to diminished restraints on behaviour. (iii) Internalisation is the changing of beliefs as a result of persuasion. Identification is the changing of beliefs to be like an admired influencing source

The effect of infant attachment. (i) Infant attachment studies. Early infant attachment is important in laying the foundation for the future formation of stable relationships. Infant attachment Human newborns have a very long period of dependency on adults. Behaviour such as crying, smiling and suckling help to form parent-child bonds. The long period of dependency is necessary for learning, e.g.. communication and social skills. There appears to be a relationship between early attachment an the infant coping with new experiences in later years, with securely attached infants later having better social skills. Insecurely attached infants have poorer social skills and tend to be more easily frustrated and give up when faced with a problem.

ii)Socialisation and learning. Humans have a long period of dependency on adults providing time for socialisation and learning to occur. Authoritative control generally results in greater social competence than permissive control. Parenting style and social competence Permissive control Parent provides little control, is indulgent allowing the child an extreme amount of freedom Child is insecurely attached and later develops poor social skills Authoritative control Parent provides control but also warmth, taking account of the child’s own preferences. Child is securely attached and develops good social skills.

(b) The effect of communication. (i)The importance of non-verbal communication in the formation of relationships between individuals and can signal attitudes and emotions as well as acting as an aid to verbal communication. Communication Non-verbal communication Important in infants before the development of speech. It is important in forming bonds with parents (infant attachment) and in communicating needs, e.g. crying when hungry, needs nappy change, for attention Non-verbal communication in adults involves giving signals, sometimes without being aware that they have been given. Non-verbal communication can be used in place of, can enhance or can contradict verbal communication Arms foldedDefensive, uncomfortable SmilingFriendly, relaxed Fidgetingbored

Verbal communication is used in the transmission of knowledge, development of culture and social evolution. Use of language to convey information Language can be written or spoken Language uses symbols to communicate information It allows information to be organised into categories Language allows the communication of information, skills and ideas Language and tone of voice can be used to communicate emotions, feelings, moods Language allows learning Use of language to communicate distinguishes humans from other animals Particular type of language used depends on your environment, e.g. country and culture, influence of parents

The effect of experience. Learning is a change in behaviour as a result of experience. (i) The repeated use of a motor skill results in a motor pathway being established. (ii) Imitation. Human behaviour may be learned by observation and imitation. (iii) Reinforcement, shaping and extinction of behaviour as seen in trial and error learning Effect of experience on behaviour Effect of practice on motor skills Repeated use of a motor skill leads to establishment of a motor pathway. Repeated use if thought to establish more synapses in the pathway resulting in the formation of a motor memory for the skill. Trial and error learning A behaviour pattern is tried without knowing the outcome, if the result is rewarding, then that behaviour is likely to be repeated. Reinforcement Reinforcement is the effect of the outcome of behaviour on the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated. Positive reinforcement occurs when the behaviour is rewarded in some way and therefore will be more likely to be repeated, e.g. if an animal is rewarded with food after performing a pattern of behaviour. Negative reinforcement occurs when behaviour has an unpleasant result making it less likely to be repeated, e.g. an animal experiencing pain after performing behaviour

Extinction of behaviour Extinction is the eventual disappearance of a behaviour trait that is no longer reinforced. Shaping of behaviour Shaping is reinforcing approximations to the desired behaviour so that this behaviour is eventually achieved Imitation Many aspects of behaviour are learned by imitation. It is easier to learn by imitation than by reading instructions. Imitation is more effective if the skill is broken into small parts and the learner repeats each part before going on to the next. Social skills and attitudes can also develop by imitation.

Effect of motivation Motivation is an inner drive that makes an animal want to learn. Its effect is seen, for example, when well fed and hungry rats try to learn the way through a maze with food as a reward at the end. Well fed rat Hungry rat Time to complete maze Trial number

Generalisation Generalisation is the ability to respond in the same way to many different but related stimuli. For example someone being afraid of all dogs after being bitten by a dog is an example of generalisation Discrimination Ability to distinguish between different but related stimuli and give different responses, e.g. in the above example being afraid of that particular dog but not all dogs.

The effect of group behaviour and social influence. (i) Social facilitation. Increased performance in competitive situations. Social facilitation Increased performance in presence of others (when compared with working alone) In competitive situations, subjects perform better in the presence of others, e.g. run faster when watched by a crowd (audience effect) or running with others (co-actor effect) than when alone. Race time (secs) Competing with others Training with others Training alone Competition improves performance when task familiar but tends to hinder when learning something new

(iii) Internalisation is the changing of beliefs as a result of persuasion. Identification is the changing of beliefs to be like an admired influencing source Group pressure XAB C Which line is equal in length to X? This shows an experiment used to investigate group pressure. One subject and a group of “plants” are asked to say which line is equal in length to X. The “plants” have been prompted to wrongly answer C. Many subjects despite knowing this was wrong agreed with the “plants”

Deindividuation Loss of personal identity and gain of anonymity while part of a group Individuals think and act differently when members of a group than when on their own Deindividuation often results in anti-social, aggressive mob behaviour Members can take greater risks when in a group than when alone, e.g. group influence can lead to drug taking ii) De-individuation. Loss of personal identity in a group leading to diminished restraints on behaviour.

Influences that change beliefs Internalisation Permanent change of behaviour, belief, attitudes due to the influence /persuasion of others, e.g. someone may give up smoking as a result of health advertising identification Change of behaviour so as to be like someone else whom an individual admires, e.g. through celebrity advertising someone may begin to use the product endorsed by the celebrity (iii) Internalisation is the changing of beliefs as a result of persuasion. Identification is the changing of beliefs to be like an admired influencing source

TermMeaning Reinforcement Extinction Shaping Imitation Generalisation Discrimination Social facilitation Deindividuation Internalisation Identification