LEARNING Chapter 8

Learning –relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience –experience (nurture) is the key to learning

Association We learn by association –Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence –Aristotle 2000 years ago –John Locke and David Hume 200 yrs ago Associative Learning –learning that two events occur together two stimuli a response and its consequences

Association Learning to associate two events Event 1Event 2 Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning We learn to associate two stimuli Two related events: Lightning Stimulus 1 Thunder Stimulus 2 Result after repetition We see lightning Stimulus We wince anticipating thunder Response

Operant Conditioning We learn to associate a response and its consequence Response: Pushing vending machine button Consequence: Receiving a candy bar

Behaviorism John B. Watson –viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon consensus today –recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted by all schools of thought today

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Ivan Pavlov – –Russian physician/ neurophysiologist –Nobel Prize in 1904 –studied digestive secretions

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment Before Conditioning During ConditioningAfter Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) Neutral stimulus (tone) No salivation UCR (salivation) Neutral stimulus (tone) UCS (food in mouth) UCR (salivation) CS (tone) CR (salivation)

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Pavlov’s device for recording salivation

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Classical Conditioning –organism comes to associate two stimuli lightning and thunder tone and food –begins with a reflex –a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes the reflex –neutral stimulus eventually comes to evoke the reflex

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) –effective stimulus that unconditionally- automatically and naturally- triggers a response Unconditioned Response (UCR) –unlearned, naturally occurring automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus (CS) –previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Conditioned Response (CR) –learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

Conditioning Acquisition –the initial stage of learning, during which a response is established and gradually strengthened –in classical conditioning, the phase in which a stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response –in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Conditioning Extinction –diminishing of a CR –in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS –in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Strength of CR Pause Acquisition (CS+UCS) Extinction (CS alone) Extinction (CS alone) Spontaneous recovery of CR

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Spontaneous Recovery –reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR Generalization –tendency for a stimuli similar to CS to evoke similar responses

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Discrimination –in classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal and UCS –in operant conditioning, responding differently to stimuli that signal a behavior will be reinforced or will not be reinforced

Generalization Drops of saliva in 30 seconds Hind paw PelvisShoulderFront paw ThighTrunkForeleg Part of body stimulated

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning UCS (passionate kiss) UCR (sexual arousal) CS (onion breath) CS (onion breath) CR (sexual arousal) UCS (passionate Kiss) UCR (sexual arousal)

Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients UCS (drug) UCR (nausea) CS (waiting room) CS (waiting room) CR (nausea) UCS (drug) UCR (nausea)

Operant Conditioning –type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment Law of Effect –Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Operant Conditioning Operant Behavior –complex or voluntary behaviors push button, perform complex task –operates (acts) on environment –produces consequences Respondent Behavior –occurs as an automatic response to stimulus –behavior learned through classical conditioning

Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner ( ) –elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect –developed behavioral technology

Operant Chamber Skinner Box –soundproof chamber with a bar or key that an animal presses or pecks to release a food or water reward –contains a device to record responses

Operant Conditioning Reinforcer –any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Shaping –conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal Successive Approximations –reward behaviors that increasingly resemble desired behavior

Principles of Reinforcement Primary Reinforcer –innately reinforcing stimulus –satisfies a biological need Secondary Reinforcer –conditioned reinforcer –learned through association with primary reinforcer

Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement –reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs –learning occurs rapidly –extinction occurs rapidly Partial Reinforcement –reinforcing a response only part of the time –results in slower acquisition –greater resistance to extinction

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) –reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses –faster you respond the more rewards you get –different ratios –very high rate of responding –like piecework pay

Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Ratio (VR) –reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses –average ratios –like gambling, fishing –very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Interval (FI) –reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed –response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near

Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Interval (VI) –reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals –produces slow steady responding –like pop quiz

Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Interval Number of responses Time (minutes) Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Fixed Interval Steady responding Rapid responding near time for reinforcement 80

Punishment –aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows –powerful controller of unwanted behavior

Problems with Punishment Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed- behavior returns when punishment is no longer eminent Causes increased aggression- shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems- Explains why aggressive delinquents and abusive parents come from abusive homes

Problems with Punishment Creates fear that can generalize to desirable behaviors, e.g. fear of school, learned helplessness, depression Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior- reinforcement tells you what to do-- punishment tells you what not to do- Combination of punishment and reward can be more effective than punishment alone Punishment teaches how to avoid it

Neg. Reinforcement vs Punishment Positive Reinforcement Time Out Punishment Negative Reinforce ment

Operant vs Classical Conditioning ExtinctionCR decreases when CS isResponding decreases when repeatedly presented alone.reinforcement stops. Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning The ResponseInvoluntary, automatic“Voluntary,” operates on environment AcquisitionAssociating events;Associating response with a CS announces UCS.Consequence (reinforcer or punisher). CognitiveSubjects develop expectation Subjects develop expectation that processesthat CS signals the arrival ofa response will be reinforced or UCS.Punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement BiologicalNatural predispositions Organisms best learn behaviors predispositionscontain what stimuli andsimilar to their natural behaviors; responses can easily beunnatural behaviors instinctively associated.drift back toward natural ones.

Cognition and Operant Conditioning Cognitive Map –mental representation of the layout of one’s environment –example- after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it Latent Learning –learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Ex.

Cognition and Operant Conditioning Overjustification Effect –the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do –the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task

Mindful Learning Importance of cognitive process** Mindfulness - actively engaged in the present, sensitive to new things **increased competence, improved memory, fewer accidents Mindlessness - programmed to act according to the sense our behavior made in the past

3 myths on ability to learn 1.Basics should be learned so well they become second nature 2.To pay attention to something we should hold it still and focus on it 3.It is important to learn how to delay gratification

Observational Learning –learning by observing and imitating others Modeling –process of observing and imitating behavior Prosocial Behavior –positive, constructive, helpful behavior –opposite of antisocial behavior

Albert Bandura Influenced by Watson, Pavlov, & Skinner Theories blend of environmental influences with information processing(brain) & being shaped by the social situation Bobo doll experiment Overcoming phobias

The Adaptive Brain Discuss behavior using 3 components: –Biological (DNA/Hormones) –Psychological (mind & how we process information) –Environmental (factors outside of ourselves) No simple answer for what makes us “tick”

Group Assignment/Review “Treatment Plan” A smoking cessation module for heavy smokers A procrastination-prevention module for high school AP students A treatment module for aviatophobics (fear of flying) An anxiety-reducing module for young children who fear going to dentist (dentophobia); or A treatment module for compulsive shoppers who are mired in credit-card debts Include as many of the following terms/concepts as possible: habituation, classical conditioning, acquisition, extinction, stimulus generalization, discrimination, operant conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, reward, response cost, delay of gratification, shaping, token economy, modeling