FIGURE 4.1 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved (a) Surface temperature (°C) of the oceans in winter (January, February, March north of the equator; July, August, September south of the equator) based on averaged (climatological) data from Levitus and Boyer (1994). (b) Satellite infrared sea surface temperature (°C; nighttime only), averaged to 50 km and 1 week, for January 3, White is sea ice. (See Figure S4.1 from the online supplementary material for this image and an image from July 3, 2008, both in color). Source: From NOAA NESDIS (2009).

FIGURE 4.2 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Typical potential temperature (°C)/depth (m) profiles for the open ocean in (a) the tropical western North Pacific (5°N), (b) the western and eastern subtropical North Pacific (24°N), and (c) the western subpolar North Pacific (47°N). Corresponding salinity profiles are shown in Figure 4.16.

FIGURE 4.3 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Variation with latitude of surface (a) temperature, (b) salinity, and (c) density averaged for all oceans for winter. North of the equator: January, February, and March. South of the equator: July, August, and September. Based on averaged (climatological) data from Levitus and Boyer (1994) and Levitus et al. (1994b).

FIGURE 4.4 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Mixed layer depth in (a) January and (b) July, based on a temperature difference of 0.2°C from the near- surface temperature. Source: From deBoyer Montégut et al. (2004). (c) Averaged maximum mixed layer depth, using the 5 deepest mixed layers in 1°  1° bins from the Argo profiling float data set ( ) and fitting the mixed layer structure as in Holte and Talley (2009). This figure can also be found in the color insert.

FIGURE 4.5 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Vertical processes that can maintain the thermocline in a simplified one-dimensional model.

FIGURE 4.6 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Temperature-salinity along surface swaths in the North Atlantic (dots and squares), and in the vertical (solid curves) at stations in the western North Atlantic (Sargasso Sea) and eastern North Atlantic. Source: From Iselin (1939).

FIGURE 4.7 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Potential temperature-salinity relation in the thermocline of each subtropical gyre. These are the Central Waters. R is the best fit of a parameter associated with double diffusive mixing (Section 7.4.3). Source: From Schmitt (1981).

FIGURE 4.8 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Growth and decay of the seasonal thermocline at 50°N, 145°W in the eastern North Pacific as (a) vertical temperature profiles, (b) time series of isothermal contours, and (c) a time series of temperatures at depths shown.

FIGURE 4.9 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Annual range of sea surface temperature (°C), based on monthly climatological temperatures from the World Ocean Atlas (WOA05) (NODC, 2005a, 2009).

FIGURE 4.10 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Mariana Trench: (a) in situ temperature, T, and potential temperature,  (°C); (b) salinity (psu); (c) potential density   (kg m –3 ) relative to the sea surface; and (d) potential density   (kg m –3 ) relative to 10,000 dbar.

FIGURE 4.11 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved (a) Potential temperature (°C), (b) salinity (psu), (c) potential density   (top) and potential density   (bottom) (kg m –3 ), and (d) oxygen (  mol/kg) in the Atlantic Ocean at longitude 20° to 25°W. Data from the World Ocean Circulation Experiment. This figure can also be found in the color insert.

FIGURE 4.12 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved (a) Potential temperature (°C), (b) salinity (psu), (c) potential density   (top) and potential density   (bottom; kg m –3 ), and (d) oxygen (  mol/kg) in the Pacific Ocean at longitude 150°W. Data from the World Ocean Circulation Experiment. This figure can also be found in the color insert.

FIGURE 4.13 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved (a) Potential temperature (°C), (b) salinity (psu), (c) potential density   (top) and potential density   (bottom; kgm –3 ), and (d) oxygen (  mol/kg) in the Indian Ocean at longitude 95°E. Data from the World Ocean Circulation Experiment. This figure can also be found in the color insert.

FIGURE 4.14 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Mean salinity, zonally averaged and from top to bottom, based on hydrographic section data. The overall mean salinity is for just these sections and does not include the Arctic, Southern Ocean, or marginal seas. Source: From Talley (2008).

FIGURE 4.15 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Surface salinity (psu) in winter (January, February, and March north of the equator; July, August, and September south of the equator) based on averaged (climatological) data from Levitus et al. (1994b).

FIGURE 4.16 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Typical salinity (psu) profiles for the tropical, subtropical, and subpolar regions of the North Pacific. Corresponding temperature profiles are shown in Figure 4.2.

FIGURE 4.17 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Potential temperature-salinity- volume (  -S-V) diagrams for (a) the whole water column and (b) for waters colder than 4°C. The shaded region in (a) corresponds to the figure in (b). Source: From Worthington (1981).

FIGURE 4.18 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved (a) Potential density   (kg m –3 ) and (b) neutral density  N in the Atlantic Ocean at longitude 20° to 25°W. Compare with Figure 4.12c. Data from the World Ocean Circulation Experiment.

FIGURE 4.19 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Surface density   (kg m –3 ) in winter (January, February, and March north of the equator; July, August, and September south of the equator) based on averaged (climatological) data from Levitus and Boyer (1994) and Levitus et al. (1994b).

FIGURE 4.20 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Typical density/depth profiles for low and high latitudes (North Pacific).

FIGURE 4.21 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Profiles of dissolved oxygen (  mol/kg) from the Atlantic (gray) and Pacific (black) Oceans. (a) 45°S, (b) 10°N, (c) 47°N. Data from the World Ocean Circulation Experiment.

FIGURE 4.22 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Nitrate (  mol/kg) and dissolved silica (  mol/kg) for the Atlantic Ocean (a, b), the Pacific Ocean (c, d), and the Indian Ocean (e, f). Note that the horizontal axes for each ocean differ. Data from the World Ocean Circulation Experiment. This figure can also be found in the color insert.

FIGURE 4.23 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Nitrate (  mol/L) at the sea surface, from the climatological data set of Conkright, Levitus, and Boyer (1994).

FIGURE 4.24 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved (a) Chlorofluorocarbon content (CFC-11; pmol/kg) and (b)  14 C (/mille) in the Pacific Ocean at150°W. White areas in (a) indicate undetectable CFC-11. From the WOCE Pacific Ocean Atlas. Source: From Talley (2007).

FIGURE 4.25 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved (a) Age (years) of Pacific Ocean waters on the isopycnal surface 27.2  , using the ratio of chlorofluorocarbon-11 to chlorofluorocarbon-12. Source: From Fine, Maillet, Sullivan, and Willey (2001). (b) Tritium concentration at 500 m in the Pacific Ocean from the WOCE Pacific Ocean Atlas. Source: From Talley (2007).

FIGURE 4.26 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Mean Secchi disk depths as functions of latitude in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Source: From Lewis et al. (1988).

FIGURE 4.27 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Profile of beam attenuation coefficient at 660 nm, from a transmissometer, converted to POC (solid line) and in situ measurements of POC (circles): (a) equatorial Pacific and (b) northeast Pacific at OWS Papa. Source: From Bishop (1999).

FIGURE 4.28 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Global images of chlorophyll derived from the Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS). Global phytoplankton concentrations change seasonally, as revealed by these three-month “climatological” composites for all months between November 1978–June 1986 during which the CZCS collected data: January–March (upper left), April–June (upper right), July–September (lower left), and October–December (lower right). Note the “blooming” of phytoplankton over the entire North Atlantic with the advent of Northern Hemisphere spring, and seasonal increases in equatorial phytoplankton concentrations in both Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and off the western coasts of Africa and Peru. Figure 4.28 will also be found in the color insert. See Figure S4.2 from the online supplementary material for maps showing the similarity between particulate organic carbon (POC) and chlorophyll. Source: From NASA (2009a).

FIGURE 4.29 TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Euphotic zone depth (m) from the Aqua MODIS satellite, 9 km resolution, monthly composite for September (Black over oceans is cloud cover that could not be removed in the monthly composite.) See Figure S4.3 from the online supplementary material for the related map of photosynthetically available radiation (PAR). This figure can also be seen in the color insert. Source: From NASA (2009b).