IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN SOJOURNERS TO THE UNITED STATES Claire B. Halverson, PhD Ken Williams, PhD School for International Training Graduate Institute World Learning Brattleboro, Vermont Joseph R. Takougang, PhD University of Cincinnati

INTEREST IN TOPIC Graduate Course: Social Identity; Racial Identity Development Models Personal experience Research Question What are the factors shaping the development of Caribbean/African immigrants’ racial/ethnic identity? Focus of this presentation on Africans

LITERATURE BACKGROUND African Immigration to the United States Refugees, professionals, winners of the U. S. Visa Lottery, or students Diversity Visa Program of 1990 Immigration Act – 50,000 Africans (Takougang, 2009) Black and Arab Africans compose 70-75% of all African immigrants The most highly educated immigrant group in the history of the United States (African Immigrants in the United States are the Nation’s Most Highly Educated Group, )

Racial and Ethnic Identity Development Models Cross (1971, 1978, 1991) – African American Non-Africentric, Afrocentric Multicultural Identity Helms (1990) – African American Preencounter – Idealization of whiteness; anxiety; poor self esteem Enmcounter – Consciousneess of race; anger Immersion/Emersion – Idealization of Blackness; rage Internalization/Commitment – Racial transcendence; positive esteem Hardiman and Jackson (1975, 1997, 2007) – African and European American Naïve Passive/Active Acceptance Passive/Active Resistance Redefinition Internalization

METHODOLOGY Research Approach Grounded theory genre: to discover a theory or create a model Sample Criterion sample – born in Africa; lived in U.S. for at least 7 months

Demographics of Participants Region of Origin Central Africa- 4 Eastern Africa - 8 West Africa - 10 Southern Africa - 2 North Africa – 1 Gender Female – 12 Male - 13 Length of Time (+ ) 7 months–1 year – years – years year – 6 10 years and over- 4 All lived in US; 5 also lived in Age Late 20s – 3 30s – 7 40s – 6 50s – 1 Unknown – 8 Education Undergraduate and beyond - 25 Reasons Why Came to US Higher education, marriage, better jobs, refugees

Data Collection Interviews – 1-1 ½ hour Questions focused on Racial/ethnic identity, experiences and their responses In country of origin In countries prior to arrival in the U.S Interactions with family and friend from their country of origin Recommendations for Africans coming to the U. S. Data Analysis Open theoretical coding Results checked with participants

RESULTS Identity Development Model of African Sojourners to the United States (AIDM) Three stages Consciousness about their own identity Perceptions of, and reactions to racism Relationships with other racial/ethnic groups

STAGE 1: ETHNIC IDENTIFICATION Racial/ethnic Identity Ethnic identity primary, intertwined with region in country, class, religion and gender Perceptions of, and Reactions to, Racism Historical phenomenon Overt individual behaviors and institutional policies of discrimination Relationships with African Americans and European Americans African Americans Crime and drugs, lazy, overconcerned with racism European Americans Friendly and curious

STAGE 2: RACIAL AWARENESS Racial/ethnic Identity Black, African or from their country Perceptions of, and Reactions to, Racism Aware of micro-aggression and covert practices Deep emotional impact Lack of action Relationships with African Americans and European Americans Understood the concern of African Americans with racism Desire to connect with African Americans Began to recognize racist attitudes of European Americans

STAGE 3: ETHNIC/RACIAL INTEGRATION Racial/ethnic Identity Redefined identity in unique way Sense of pride in African identity Perceptions of, and Reactions to, Racism No longer shocked Used variety of strategies to cope with racism Relationships with African Americans and European Americans Selective friendships with both groups

CONCLUSION s Factors Influencing Development Geographic region of initial settlement Age when came to U.S. Personal experiences: degree and nature of interaction in early entry Length of time in U. S.

Comparison to Other Models Helms’ Black Racial Identity Development Model Hardiman/Jackson Social Identity Development Theory African Identity Development Model Pre-encounter Poor self esteem and internalization of negative view of Black culture Desire to emulate White culture Passive/Active Acceptance Acceptance of superiority and the rightness of whiteness Ethnic Identification Pride in ethnic identity Trust White culture Racism is historical Encounter Consciousness of race Immersion/Emersion Idealization of Blackness and denigration of Whiteness Cultural mistrust Resistance Awareness of systemic racism and their own privilege as Whites Seek acceptance from Blacks Struggle with guilt Racial Awareness Deep understanding of racism Emotional impact and questioning of their worth Inaction Cultural mistrust Internalization/ Commitment Black and Pan-African identity and racial transcendence Able to act Redefinition/ Internalization Acceptance of White Identity Able to act Racial Ethnic Integration Integration of racial and ethnic identity Able to act

LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH AND FUTURE RESEARCH Sample included only those with graduate degrees Study of Africans, European Americans of African Americans and Africans, Black immigrants from the Caribbean

IMPLICATIONS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION Student-Student Student-Faculty Counselor-Student Student Affairs

REFERENCES. African Immigrants in the United States Are the Nation’s Most Highly Educated Group (Winter ). The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 26. Retrieved March 19, 2009, from Cross, M. (1971). Discovering the Black Referent: The Psychology of Black Liberation. In V. Dixon & B. Foster (Eds), Beyond Black or White: An Alternate America (pp.23-66). Boston: Little, Brown and Co. _____. (1978). Models of Psychological Nigrescence: A Literature Review. Journal of Black Psychology, 5, 1, _____. (1991). Shades of Black: Diversity in African American Identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Helms, J. E. (1990). Black and White Racial Identity. Westport, CT: Praeger. Hardiman, R. and B. Jackson (1997, 2007). Conceptual Foundations for Social Justice Courses. In Adams, M., B. Bell & P.. Griffin. Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice. New York: Routledge. Jackson, B. (1975). Black Identity Development. Journal of Educational Diversity, 2, Takougang, J. (1995). Recent African Immigrants to the United States: A Historical Perspective. The Western Journal of Black Studies. 19, 1. ___________. & Tidjani, B. (2009). Settlement Patterns and Organizations Among African Immigrants in the United States. Journal of Third World Studies, 26, 1.