 Deme : local, interbreeding population that is defined in terms of its genetic composition (for example allele frequencies).  Subspecies : group of local populations that share part of the geographic range of a species, and can be differentiated from other subspecies based on one or more phenotypic traits.

 Race : in biological taxonomy, same thing as a subspecies; when applied to humans, sometimes incorporates both cultural and biological factors.  Polytipic species : species that consist of a number of separate breeding populations, each varying in some genetic trait.

Monogenism – Polygenism

 Environmentalism : the view that the environment has great powers to directly shape the anatomy of individual organisms.

 Influenced by the work of Lyell’s uniformitarianism which lead to the idea of evolution as progress.

 Tylor advocates the idea of cultures progressing through unilineal evolution.  With unilineal evolution, that would indicate laws of thought and action.  The idea of savagery  civilization  There are stages of culture which in turn allows for a ranking of societies. With a progressive approach and stages of culture the terms primitive, inferior, and superior are accepted as scientific.

 Savagery  Barbarism  Civilization

 Morgan divides savagery into three phases: Lower, Middle, Upper  Lower  Lower : earliest hunters, and ends with the invention of fire and fishing.  Middle  Middle : starts with fire and fishing and lasts until the invention of bow and arrow  Upper  Upper : ends with the development of pottery

 Divided into three phases; Lower, Middle, and Upper  Lower  Lower : ends with domestication of animals (old world) and plants (new world)  Middle  Middle : ends with smelting ore  Upper  Upper : ends with phonetic alphabet and writing

 Invention and discoveries  Government  Family organization  Property

A prejudiced belief that members of one ethnic group are superior in some way to those of another.

A human group defined in terms of sociological, cultural, and linguistic traits.

 Skin color  Eye form  Hair color and form  Head shape

 Population genetics : the study of genetic variation within and between groups of organisms.  Microevolution : the study of evolutionary phenomena that occur within a species.

 Polymorphic : two or more distinct phenotypes (at the genetic or anatomical levels) that exist within a population.  Cline : the distribution of a trait or allele across geographical space.

 Haplotypes : combinations of alleles (or at the sequence level, mutations) that are found together in an individual.  Duffy blood group : red blood cell system useful for studying admixture between African and European derived populations.

 Phylogeny : an evolutionary tree indicating relatedness and divergence of taxonomic groups. › Closely related populations share a branch: a lineage or a clade. › Branching points, or nodes, in the tree represent the separation or division of any pair (or groups) or populations.

 Lactose intolerant : the inability to digest lactose, the sugar found in milk; most adult mammals (including humans) are lactose intolerant as adults.

 Balanced polymorphisms : a stable polymorphism in a population in which natural selection prevents any of the alternative phenotypes (or underlying alleles) from becoming fixed or being lost.  Frequency-dependent balanced polymorphism : balanced polymorphism that is maintained because one (or more) of the alternative phenotypes has a selective advantage over the other phenotypes only when it is present in the population below a certain frequency.

 With reference to a particular genetic system, the situation in which a heterozygotes have a selective advantage over homozygotes (for example, sickle cell disease ); a mechanism for maintaining a balanced polymorphism.

 Adaptability : the ability of an individual organism to make positive anatomical or physiological changes after short or long-term exposure to stressful environmental conditions.  Acclimatization : short-term changes in physiology that occur in an organism in response to changes in environmental conditions.

 Bergman’s rule : stipulates that body size is larger in colder climates to conserve body temperature.  Allen’s rule : stipulates that in warmer climates, the limbs of the body are longer relative to body size to dissipate body heat.