W ARMUP 4/14 Was antibiotic resistance already present in the population of bacteria or did it develop because antibiotics have been used? Why is antibiotic resistance an example of artificial selection? What is a dichotomous key used for?

W ARMUP 4/22 Who is the “Father of Modern Genetics”? What does dominant mean? How are codominant and incomplete dominant different? What are 2 examples of sex-linked traits we have looked at in class?

B ASIC C HEMISTRY

Definition: basic unit of matter. Made of: Protons Neutrons Electrons Neutral atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons

E LEMENTS Definition: pure substances that are made of one type of atom. Chemical symbols are used to represent each atom. Found on the Periodic Table

C OMPOUNDS Definition: chemical combinations of 2 or more atoms. New combination does not have the same chemical or physical properties of the original elements EX: C (solid) + O2 (gas)  CO2 (gas)

H YDROGEN B ONDS When a H atom bonds to the O atom of another water molecule  called Hydrogen bonding Very weak bond

B ASIC C HEMISTRY Acids, Bases, and pH Acids and Bases result from water molecules reacting to form ions pH Scale: indicates the concentration of Hydrogen ions in solution; ranges from

B ASIC C HEMISTRY pH Scale  scale that measures acidity (hydrogen ion)

B UFFERS - Buffers: chemicals that keep the pH of a liquid (solution) the same Examples: Sodium Bicarbonate in the blood and Alka-Seltzer

W ARMUP 4/15 What are vestigial structure? How are fossils used to support evolution? Where in the earth levels are the oldest fossils found? How are arm bones used as evidence of natural selection?

W ARMUP 11/10 What is an example of an element? What is an example of a compound? What are hydrogen bonds? Where have we used hydrogen bonds in our class so far?

W ARMUP 4/25 Pick the stronger acid or base in the choices below: 2 or 4 10 or 12 8 or 14 Which is the weaker acid? 6 or 8 3 or 4 pH measures what in water?

B IOCHEMISTRY

Study of the chemicals necessary for living things. Involves the element carbon (C) Organic: molecules that have Carbon and hydrogen bonded together Inorganic: molecules that do not have carbon and hydrogen bonded together

B IOCHEMISTRY Six elements needed in large quantities for living things are: Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S)

B IOCHEMISTRY Terms to Know: Monomer – the smallest unit of a substance Also known as subunits Example: like one Lego block Polymer – many monomers linked together to make a large structure; also called macromolecules Example: Lego blocks put together to make a Lego house

B IOCHEMISTRY Types of Organic Molecules (Macromolecules) 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic Acids

C ARBOHYDRATES

Also called sugars and starches Elements: C, H, and O in a 1:2:1 ratio (Example: C 6 H 12 O 6 ) Typically end in –ose (Example: glucose) Function: to store and release quick energy

C ARBOHYDRATES Monomer: Monosaccharide Example: glucose Polymer: Polysaccharide Starch  sugars in plants Glycogen  energy storage in animal muscle Cellulose  found in plant cell walls; animals can not digest

M ONOSACCHARIDE P ICTURE

C ARBOHYDRATES T EST Starch: Iodine test Color changes from brown/yellow to black/dark purple Monosaccharide: Benedict’s reagent Color changes from light blue to orange when heated

L IPIDS

Commonly called fats, oils, and waxes Elements: C, H, and O in a non-specific ratio (Example: C 21 H 17 O 43 ) Function: Long-term energy (twice as much as carbs) Cell membranes Insulation Body padding Monomer: Glycerol and 3 fatty acids

L IPID MONOMER P ICTURE

L IPIDS Types of Lipids (Fats) Saturated – bonds in molecule are unbendable; tend to clog arteries; typically from animals (fats, butter, lard) Unsaturated – some bonds in molecule bend; better, but can still clog arteries; typically from plants (oils)

P OLYMERS Steroids: involved in chemical signaling in your body Phospholipids: fats that make up the outside of each cell

C HEMICAL T ESTS Lipids: Brown Paper Bag Test Brown paper will absorb the lipids and spots form Think about what happens to a 5 guys bag when you add fries

W ARMUP 3/26 What was the purpose of the Miller and Urey experiment? If a type A man and a type AB woman had a child, what are all the possible blood types the baby could have? What is an example of how gel electrophoresis is used in society today?

P ROTEINS

Elements: C, H, O, N, sometimes S Monomer  amino acids R-group is what makes each amino acid different Polymer  polypeptide Examples: hemoglobin in red blood cells and insulin which controls blood sugar levels Account for 50% of the dry weight of cells

P ROTEINS Functions of Proteins Cell movement Fibers in bone, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage Homeostasis regulation (hormones and enzymes) Defense against disease (antibodies)

P ROTEINS Enzymes are special proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body.

C HEMICAL T EST Proteins: Biuret’s Reagent Color changes from Blue to purple when proteins are present

W ARMUP 11/13 What is the role of carbohydrates in our bodies? What elements make carbohydrates? What is the monomer of a carbohydrate? What is an example of a polysaccharide?

N UCLEIC A CIDS

Elements: C, H, O, N, P, S Function  control genetic information Monomer  nucleotide Polymers DNA  deoxyribonucleic acid RNA  ribonucleic acid

W ARMUP 11/16 What is the monomer of a protein? What is the test for proteins and what indicates a positive test? What is a polymer of a protein? What elements make up proteins?

W ARMUP 4/28 What is the role of lipids in our bodies? What elements make lipids? What is the monomer of a lipid? What is an example of a lipid?

E NZYMES Special proteins that SPEED UP reactions!

B ASIC I NFORMATION Enzymes are proteins which speed up chemical reactions. A catalyst is any substance which affects the speed of a chemical reaction without itself being changed. Enzyme names end in -ase

Enzymes regulate body processes by speeding up or slowing down certain chemical reactions. They affect the reaction rate by decreasing the activation energy (energy required to start the reaction). Makes the reaction happen faster.

1. E NZYME ARE S PECIFIC  SHAPE MATTERS ! Enzymes are very selective; they may catalyze only one reaction or one specific class of closely related reactions. SUBSTRATE = What enzymes react with ACTIVE SITE =Place where enzyme + substrate meet PRODUCT = What the reaction makes

If the enzyme shape changes, then the enzyme becomes denatured Enzyme Model = INDUCED FIT  the shape of the active site changes slightly to fit the substrate

2. R EUSABLE Enzymes are recyclable.

3. T HE SPEED OF THE ENZYME IS EFFECTED BY THE ENVIRONMENT Effect of TEMPERATURE In general, as the temperature INCREASES the rate of enzyme action INCREASES, until an optimal temperature is reached (usually around 37 o C).

Beyond optimal temperature, the heat DENATURES the shape of the active site of the enzyme molecule and LOWERS the rate of the reaction.

3. E NZYME A CTION Effects of pH (acid or base) For each enzyme, there is an optimal pH above and below which enzyme activity SLOWS. Optimal pH changes based on what part of the body the enzyme is located in.

W ARMUP 4/23 What is the definition of an enzyme? How do enzymes affect activation energy? What term is used for when the active site of an enzyme changes and the enzyme is no longer working? What are the 3 properties of enzymes?

W ARMUP 4/24 Do enzymes always break down molecules or always put them back together? (35) Why is the difference in activation energy between using an enzyme (less energy used) and not using an enzyme (more energy used) important for chemical reactions? (41) Why are enzymes commonly found in the digestive tract?