Mindfulness and critical thinking: Investigating theoretical links and the role of executive control Chris Noone

THE PROBLEM WITH MINDFULNESS & EVERYTHING…

MINDFULNESS & CRITICAL THINKING Historical connection to cultivation of clarity of thought When considering the theoretical foundation of a relationship between mindfulness and thinking, there are generally two main perspectives put forward: One view suggests that mindfulness is either not related to skill in everyday thinking, or even a hindrance to it, due to the importance of developing skill in acceptance and non-elaborative, or non-reactive, processing in learning mindfulness (Brendel, 2015) Another view suggests that since mindfulness practice appears to result in improved self-regulation, it may facilitate the operation of reflective processes which are crucial to effective thinking (Shapiro, Brown, & Astin, 2011).

WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING? Cognitive psychologists operationalise critical thinking as the effective use of the cognitive skills of analysis, evaluation, and inference, in a purposeful, reasoned and goal-directed manner (Halpern, 1998). The appropriate execution of these critical thinking skills depends on the presence of specific dispositions towards thinking (Dwyer, Hogan, & Stewart, 2014). Critical thinking measures are most appropriate as indicators of everyday thinking skills because of their: ecological validity sensitivity to both the cognitive & dispositional aspects of critical thinking

HALPERN CRITICAL THINKING ASSESSMENT

Operationalisation of Mindfulness The first component involves the deployment of attention and refers to a state of full attention to both internal and external experience in the present moment. The second component is a particular orientation to experience characterised by non- judgmental acceptance of emotions and thoughts and consequent non-reactivity to them.

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

MINDFULNESS & EXECUTIVE FUNCTION Image: Malinowski, 2013 Inhibiting elaboration of affective cues Updating working memory contents Switching focus back to object of meditation

Default interventionist dual- process theory of higher- order cognition Fast Automatic Associative Experience-based decision making Independent of cognitive ability Type 1 process (intuitive) Slow Capacity limited Conscious Controlled Rule-based Consequential decision making Does not require EF Autonomous Type 2 process (reflective) Does require EF Cognitive decoupling Mental simulation Intervention of EF

CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY - SEM MODEL

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY N = 65 (Mean age = 21.09; SD = 5.46; 17 males; 48 females) A priori calculations G*Power suggested a minimum sample size of 60 was required for analysis to yield adequate power. Based on 2 groups, 2 measurements, an assumed correlation among repeated measures of 0.3 (typically low in such research; Weiner, Schinker, & Velicer, 2012) as well as a medium effect size (r= 0.3, again typical in research on the cognitive effects of mindfulness; Chiesa et al., 2011) and a power of 0.8 Measures Dispositional Measures Five Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire Need for Cognition Actively Open-minded Thinking State Measure Mindful Awareness and Attention - State Executive Function N-Back Critical Thinking Adapted Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment

Mixed factorial design Between subjects Mindfulness meditation vs. sham meditation Within subjects Pre-manipulation vs post- manipulation Analysis Mixed ANOVAS PROCESS Bayesian t-tests Control Group Experimental Group EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

MINDFULNESS MEDITATION SCRIPT First, settle into a comfortable sitting position, sitting with your back straight against the back of the chair, your legs uncrossed, your feet flat on the floor and your hands in your lap. Now gently close your eyes. Ask yourself, “What is my experience right now? What am I thinking about? What am I feeling emotionally? What sensations are present in my body?” Just observe your experience, whatever it is. Bringing your awareness to your body, focus your attention on the sensations of touch or pressure where your body makes contact with the chair. Spend a moment or two exploring these sensations. Now bring your attention to the changing physical sensations in your lower abdomen as the breath moves in and out of your body. To help you pay attention to your breathing, place your hand on your lower abdomen, and become aware of the changing sensations where your hand makes contact with your abdomen. Focusing on the actual sensations of breath entering and breath leaving the body. There is no need to think about the breath – just experience the sensations of it. And there is no need to try to control the breathing in any way - simply let the breath be natural. Sooner or later your mind will wander away from the focus on the breath in the lower abdomen to thoughts, feelings, daydreams, drifting along - whatever. This is perfectly OK - it's simply what minds do. When you notice that your awareness is no longer on the breath, acknowledge gently and briefly where the mind has been. Then, gently bring your awareness back to the changing physical sensations in the lower abdomen, renewing your in­tention to pay attention to the breath coming in and breath going out.

SHAM MEDITATION SCRIPT Now we’re going to do an exercise for ten minutes. First, settle into a comfortable sitting position. Now simply think about whatever comes to mind. Let you mind wander freely without trying to focus on anything in particular. Just let you mind roam as it normally would Now simply continue with letting your mind wander and think about whatever you want. I’ll let you know when it’s time to move on to something else. Continue letting your mind wander, letting your thoughts go wherever they take you. (repeated variants of this instruction) Remember to just continue letting your mind wander, and follow wherever it takes you. Just think about whatever comes to your mind. I’ll let you know when it’s time to move on to something else Now we will move on to the next part of the study.

Step 7 Debrief Step 6 Outcome Measures Step 5 Mindfulness InductionMind-wandering Induction Step 4 Behavioural Measures Step 3 Dispositional & State Measures Step 2 Informed Consent and Demographic Data Step 1 Welcome STUDY PROCEDURE

RESULTS Effect of MM on executive function tested using a series of 2 x 2 mixed ANOVAs to examine whether a significant time by group interaction was present for three indicators of performance in the N-back – RT, accuracy and D’. No significant interaction effects Similar analytical approach to test effect of MM on critical thinking No significant interaction effect Mediation model tested to examine whether indirect effect of MM through executive function on critical thinking was present No significant indirect effect found

RESULTS Controlling for thinking dispositions (i.e. effect on cognitive component of critical thinking only) Test of moderation of effect of MM by thinking dispositions Model 1bSEtpLLCIULCI Group AOT Group x AOT Model 2bSETpLLCIULCI Group NFC Group x NFC

Moderation of Experimental Effect by Need for Cognition and Actively Open-minded Thinking Level of Actively Open-minded Thinking Level of Need for Cognition Effect of MM on Critical Thinking

Observing Non- Reactivity Group N-back Performance Critical Thinking Performance

CONDITIONAL INDIRECT EFFECT Medium Observing Low Non-reactivity High Observing Low Non-reactivity Very High Observing Low Non-reactivity Negative effect of mindfulness meditation on critical thinking accounted for by increased RT

CONCLUSION Claims regarding mindfulness are not evidence-based Rigour is seriously lacking in mindfulness research Relationship between mindfulness and critical thinking is not straight-forward Both positive and negative influences Unknown mediators Conditional effects

Control Group Experimental Group What’s next? 6 week online mindfulness intervention Pre-registered Randomised Double-Blinded Active-Controlled

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