Article : Competing Paradigms in Qualitative Research EGON G.GUBA YVONNA S. LINCOLN

Internal Critiques of the Received View (against Quantitative) 1. Context Stripping. 2. Exclusion of meaning and purpose. 3. Disjunction of grand theories with local contexts. 4. Inapplicability of general data to individual cases. 5. Exclusion of the discovery dimension in inquiry.

Context stripping Quantitative approach : Focus : selected subset of variables. Out of consideration : other subsets of variables(if allowed) can alter findings. Example : LABORATORY TEST 10 ML A + 10 ML B = C 5 ML A + 10 ML B = D Relevance (applicability/generalizability) : outcomes are only applicable in other similar situations/setting Example : if the research was conducted in a school than perhaps it is only applicable in another school and not any other setting. Qualitative approach : provide contextual information (explanations are based on context and not generalized)

Exclusion of meaning and purpose Quantitative : Does not include meaning and purpose of its outcome. Studying human behaviour requires meaning and purpose which is related to their activities. Cannot be merely understood using measurements. Qualitative : provides rich understanding into human behaviour – use of open ended questions & interviews.

Disjunction of grand theories with local contexts Etic (description of a behaviour or belief by an observer) Emic (description of behaviour or a belief meaningful to the actor (society, group, individual) Used to refer to two different kinds of data concerning human behavior

Quantitative : The etic theory (Hypothesis proposed to be tested) may have little or no meaning within the emic view of studied individual, groups, societies or cultures) Example : Collaborative learning lessons enhances students’ academic achievement.

Inapplicability of general data to individual cases Quantitative: General data : statistically meaningful but not to individual cases Qualitative: avoid such ambiguities where data is not generalized to individuals.

Exclusion of the discovery dimension in inquiry Aim of enquiry : doesn’t include the purpose of discovery. Focuses on finding an absolute answer for a problem. Focus : empirical enquiry (observation & experiment)

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POSITIVISM AND POST-POSITIVISM PARADIGM IN TERMS OF ONTOLOGY, EPISTOMOLOGY AND METHODOLOGY

POSITIVISM POST-POSITIVISM ONTOLOGY Naïve Realism : reality is driven by unchangeable natural laws. The way things are : time & context free. Some take the form of cause-effect law (All actions have consequences and produce SPECIFIC results). Critical Realism : reality is seen in a wide perception-critical examination to facilitate understanding. To watch very closely and consider the factors contributes to certain findings. EPISTOMOLOGY Dualist and Objectivist Investigator & Investigated object : INDEPENDENT ENTITIES . Values & bias free : to ensure the findings remain same when replicated. Modified Dualist/objectivist Does not involve dualism. Objectivity remains Replicated findings : conditional upon falsification. METHODOLOGY Experimental & manipulative Questions/hypotheses : in a propositional form and needs to be tested for verification (experiment). Manipulation : conditions that can be confounding –controlled- prevent influenced outcomes. Modified experimental/ manipulative Focus : falsify hypothesis Redress the internal critiques by doing inquiry in natural setting, collecting situational information, and etc.

HOW A PARADIGM CAN AFFECT THE WAY A RESEARCH IS CONDUCTED AS WELL AS THE WAY THE DATA IS INTERPRETED?

AIM OF INQUIRY Positivism Postpositivism Critical theory : Critique and Transformation Constructivism : Understanding and Reconstruction Explanation , prediction and control

EXAMPLE Topic : Drilling method enhances students academic achievement Positivism : data -interpreted in a very objective way Critical Theory : critiques – gaps for transformation

NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE Positivism : verified hypothesis established as laws or fact. Postpositivism : nonfalsified hypothesis that a probable facts or laws Critical theory : structural/ historical insights Constructivism : individual reconstruction coalescing around consensus

EXAMPLE Hypothesis : Drilling method enhances students academic achievement Positivism : verified hypothesis to be considered as the absolute answer. Postpositivism : hypothesis to be a probable answer. There could be other possible answers.

Knowledge accumulates by a process of accretion KNOWLEDGE ACCUMULATION Positivism Postpositivism Critical theory : historical revisionism, generalization by similarity Constructivism : more informed and sophisticated reconstructions, vicarious experience. Knowledge accumulates by a process of accretion

EXAMPLE Topic : Drilling method enhances students academic achievement Positivism : data – add on to the effectiveness of drilling method Critical Theory : data – interpreted using a logical process of historical revision.

GOODNESS OR QUALITY CRITERIA Positivism Postpositivism Critical theory : historical situatedness, erosion of ignorance, action stimulus Constructivism : data is collected by putting into account many important criteria. - trustworthy (validity & reliability) , authenticity Conventional benchmarks of “rigor”; internal & external validity, reliability & objectivity

EXAMPLE Topic : Drilling method enhances students academic achievement Positivism : whether drilling is applicable in reality (today). Critical theory : whether the drilling is suitable for the social group, whether it can provide a stimulus to action.

Other Issues Values & ethics : taken into serious consideration by all paradigm – different conventional & emergent responses. Voice Training Accomodation Hegemony

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