Unit 8A: Motivation and Emotion: Motivation

Motivation = a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology Instinct (fixed pattern)Instinct a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned. –Instincts in animals –Instincts in humans

Drives and Incentives Drive-reduction theory the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need –Homeostasis a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular levelHomeostasis –Need –Drive –Drive reduction

Drives and Incentives Incentive a positive or negative environment stimulus that motivates behavior

Optimum Arousal Arousal –Optimum level of arousal

Hierarchy of Needs = Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

A Hierarchy of Motives

Hunger

The Physiology of Hunger Contractions of the stomach –Washburn study

The Physiology of Hunger Body Chemistry and the Brain Glucose Insulin Hypothalamus –Lateral hypothalamus orexin –Vetromedial hypothalamus

Glucose = the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

The Physiology of Hunger Body Chemistry and the Brain Appetite hormones –Ghrelin –Obestatin –PYY –Leptin Set point Basal metabolic rate

Set Point = the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

Basal Metabolic Rate = the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.

Bulimia Nervosa = an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually high- calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

The Psychology of Hunger Taste Preferences: Biology and Culture Taste preferences –Genetic: sweet and salty –Neophobia –Adaptive taste preferences

The Psychology of Hunger Eating Disorders Eating disorders –Anorexia nervosaAnorexia nervosa –Bulimia nervosaBulimia nervosa –Binge-eating disorderBinge-eating disorder

Anorexia Nervosa = an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve.

Binge-eating Disorder = significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa.

Level of Analysis for Our Hunger Motivation

Obesity and Weight Control Historical explanations for obesity Obesity –Definition –Statistics –Obesity and life expectancy

Obesity

Obesity and Weight Control The Social Effects of Obesity Social effects of obesity Weight discrimination Psychological effects of obesity

Weight Discrimination

Obesity and Weight Control The Physiology of Obesity Fat Cells

Obesity and Weight Control The Physiology of Obesity Set point and metabolism

Obesity and Weight Control The Physiology of Obesity The genetic factor The food and activity factor –Sleep loss –Social influence –Food consumption and activity level

Obesity and Weight Control Losing Weight Realistic and moderate goals Success stories Attitudinal changes

Sexual Motivation

The Physiology of Sex The Sexual Response Cycle Sexual response cycle –Excitement phase –Plateau phase –Orgasm –Resolution phase Refractory period

Sexual Response Cycle = the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson – excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Refractory Period = a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.

The Physiology of Sex Hormones and Sexual Behavior Effects of hormones –Development of sexual characteristics –Activate sexual behavior Estrogen Testosterone

Estrogens = sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amount by females than males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.

Testosterone = the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

The Psychology of Sex External stimuli Imagined stimuli –Dreams –Sexual fantasies

Levels of Analysis for Sexual Motivation

Adolescent Sexuality Teen Pregnancy Ignorance Minimal communication about birth control Guilt related to sexual activity Alcohol use Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity

Adolescent Sexuality Sexually Transmitted Infections Statistics of STIs Teen abstinence –High intelligence –Religious engagement –Father presence –Participation in service learning programs –xxx

Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation –Homosexual orientation –Heterosexual orientation Sexual orientation statistics

Sexual Orientation = an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation).

Sexual Orientation Origins of Sexual Orientation Origins of sexual orientation studies –Fraternal birth order effect Same-sex attraction in animals The brain and sexual orientation Genes and sexual orientation Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation

The Need to Belong

Aiding survival Wanting to belong Sustaining relationships The pain of ostracism –ostracism