Central Nervous System (CNS) CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles Four chambers within the brain Filled with cerebrospinal fluid

Cerebral hemisphere Outline of diencephalon Midbrain Cerebellum Brain stem (a) 13 weeks Figure 7.12a

Regions of the Brain Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum) Diencephalon Brain stem Cerebellum

Cerebral hemisphere Diencephalon Cerebellum Brain stem (b) Adult brain Figure 7.12b

Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain Includes more than half of the brain mass The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)

Central sulcus Precentral gyrus Postcentral gyrus Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Parieto-occipital sulcus (deep) Lateral sulcus Occipital lobe Temporal lobe Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata Cerebral cortex (gray matter) Spinal cord Gyrus Sulcus Cerebral white matter Fissure (a deep sulcus) (a) Figure 7.13a

Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Lobes of the cerebrum Fissures  deep grooves that divide the cerebrum into lobes Surface lobes of the cerebrum Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Temporal lobe

Parietal lobe Left cerebral hemisphere Frontal lobe Occipital lobe Temporal lobe Cephalad Cerebellum Caudal Brain stem (b) Figure 7.13b

Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Specialized areas of the cerebrum Primary somatic sensory area Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors Located in parietal lobe Primary motor area Sends impulses to skeletal muscles Located in frontal lobe Broca’s area Involved in our ability to speak

Central sulcus Primary motor area Primary somatic sensory area Premotor area Gustatory area (taste) Anterior association area Speech/language (outlined by dashes) • Working memory and judgment • Problem solving Posterior association area • Language comprehension Visual area Broca’s area (motor speech) Olfactory area Auditory area (c) Figure 7.13c

Figure 7.14

Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Cerebral areas involved in special senses Gustatory area (taste) Visual area Auditory area Olfactory area

Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Interpretation areas of the cerebrum Speech/language region Language comprehension region General interpretation area

Central sulcus Primary motor area Primary somatic sensory area Premotor area Gustatory area (taste) Anterior association area Speech/language (outlined by dashes) • Working memory and judgment • Problem solving Posterior association area • Language comprehension Visual area Broca’s area (motor speech) Olfactory area Auditory area (c) Figure 7.13c

Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Layers of the cerebrum Gray matter  outer layer in the cerebral cortex composed mostly of neuron cell bodies White matter  fiber tracts deep to the gray matter Corpus callosum connects hemispheres Basal nuclei  islands of gray matter buried within the white matter

Longitudinal fissure Association fibers Superior Commissural fibers (corpus callosum) Lateral ventricle Corona radiata Basal nuclei (basal ganglia) Fornix Internal capsule Thalamus Third ventricle Pons Projection fibers Medulla oblongata Figure 7.15

Cerebral hemisphere Corpus callosum Third ventricle Choroid plexus of third ventricle Occipital lobe of cerebral hemisphere Thalamus (encloses third ventricle) Anterior commissure Pineal gland (part of epithalamus) Hypothalamus Corpora quadrigemina Optic chiasma Midbrain Cerebral aqueduct Pituitary gland Cerebral peduncle of midbrain Mammillary body Fourth ventricle Pons Choroid plexus Medulla oblongata Cerebellum Spinal cord (a) Figure 7.16a

Homeostatic Imbalance Huntington’s Disease Genetic disease that strikes during middle age and leads to massive degeneration of the basal nuclei and later the cerebral cortex Initial symptoms include wild, jerky, and almost continuous flapping movements that are involuntary Usually fatal within 15 years of the onset of symptoms

Homeostatic Imbalance Parkinson’s Disease Typically strikes people in their 50’s and 60’s Results from a degeneration of the dopamine releasing neurons of the substantia nigra of the midbrain People have persistent tremors at rest (head nodding and “pill rolling” movement of the fingers), forward bent walking posture, and shuffling gait Ex: Muhammad Ali and Michael J. Fox

Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Sits on top of the brain stem Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres Made of three parts Thalamus Hypothalamus Epithalamus

Cerebral hemisphere Diencephalon Cerebellum Brain stem (b) Adult brain Figure 7.12b

Cerebral hemisphere Corpus callosum Third ventricle Choroid plexus of third ventricle Occipital lobe of cerebral hemisphere Thalamus (encloses third ventricle) Anterior commissure Pineal gland (part of epithalamus) Hypothalamus Corpora quadrigemina Optic chiasma Midbrain Cerebral aqueduct Pituitary gland Cerebral peduncle of midbrain Mammillary body Fourth ventricle Pons Choroid plexus Medulla oblongata Cerebellum Spinal cord (a) Figure 7.16a

Ascending general sensory tracts (touch, pain, temperature) Radiations to cerebral cortex Auditory impulses Visual impulses Reticular formation Descending motor projections to spinal cord Ascending general sensory tracts (touch, pain, temperature) (b) Figure 7.16b

Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Thalamus Surrounds the third ventricle The relay station for sensory impulses Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and interpretation

Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Hypothalamus Under the thalamus Important autonomic nervous system center Helps regulate body temperature Controls water balance Regulates metabolism Houses the limbic center for emotions Regulates the nearby pituitary gland Produces two hormones of its own

Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Epithalamus Forms the roof of the third ventricle Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland) Includes the choroid plexus—forms cerebrospinal fluid

Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Attaches to the spinal cord Parts of the brain stem Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata

Cerebral hemisphere Corpus callosum Third ventricle Choroid plexus of third ventricle Occipital lobe of cerebral hemisphere Thalamus (encloses third ventricle) Anterior commissure Pineal gland (part of epithalamus) Hypothalamus Corpora quadrigemina Optic chiasma Midbrain Cerebral aqueduct Pituitary gland Cerebral peduncle of midbrain Mammillary body Fourth ventricle Pons Choroid plexus Medulla oblongata Cerebellum Spinal cord (a) Figure 7.16a

Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Midbrain Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers Has two bulging fiber tracts— cerebral peduncles Has four rounded protrusions— corpora quadrigemina Reflex centers for vision and hearing

Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Pons The bulging center part of the brain stem Mostly composed of fiber tracts Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing

Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Medulla oblongata The lowest part of the brain stem Merges into the spinal cord Includes important fiber tracts Contains important control centers Heart rate control Blood pressure regulation Breathing Swallowing Vomiting

Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Reticular Formation Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem Involved in motor control of visceral organs Reticular activating system (RAS) plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and consciousness

Ascending general sensory tracts (touch, pain, temperature) Radiations to cerebral cortex Auditory impulses Visual impulses Reticular formation Descending motor projections to spinal cord Ascending general sensory tracts (touch, pain, temperature) (b) Figure 7.16b

Regions of the Brain: Cerebellum Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces Provides involuntary coordination of body movements

Cerebral hemisphere Corpus callosum Third ventricle Choroid plexus of third ventricle Occipital lobe of cerebral hemisphere Thalamus (encloses third ventricle) Anterior commissure Pineal gland (part of epithalamus) Hypothalamus Corpora quadrigemina Optic chiasma Midbrain Cerebral aqueduct Pituitary gland Cerebral peduncle of midbrain Mammillary body Fourth ventricle Pons Choroid plexus Medulla oblongata Cerebellum Spinal cord (a) Figure 7.16a

Homeostatic Imbalance Ataxia Usually occurs if the cerebellum is damaged (blow to the head, tumor, or stroke) Movements become clumsy and disorganized Victims cannot keep their balance because of the loss of muscle coordination Unable to touch their finger to their nose while their eyes are closed

Protection of the Central Nervous System Scalp and skin Skull and vertebral column Meninges  the three connective tissue membranes covering and protecting the CNS structures Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Blood-brain barrier

Skin of scalp Periosteum Bone of skull Periosteal Dura mater Meningeal Superior sagittal sinus Arachnoid mater Pia mater Subdural space Arachnoid villus Subarachnoid space Blood vessel Falx cerebri (in longitudinal fissure only) (a) Figure 7.17a

Meninges Dura mater Tough outermost layer Double-layered external covering Periosteum—attached to inner surface of the skull Meningeal layer—outer covering of the brain Folds inward in several areas Falx cerebri Tentorium cerebelli

Meninges Arachnoid layer Middle layer Web-like extensions span the subarachnoid space Arachnoid villi reabsorb cerebrospinal fluid Pia mater Internal layer Clings to the surface of the brain

Skull Scalp Superior sagittal sinus Occipital lobe Dura mater Tentorium cerebelli Transverse sinus Cerebellum Temporal bone Arachnoid mater over medulla oblongata (b) Figure 7.17b

Homeostatic Imbalance Meningitis An inflammation of the meninges Serious threat to the brain because bacterial or viral meningitis may spread into the nervous tissue of the CNS Usually diagnosed by taking a sample of CSF through a lumbar puncture

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Similar to blood plasma composition Formed by the choroid plexus Choroid plexuses–capillaries in the ventricles of the brain Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Pathway of Flow CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of each ventricle. CSF flows through the ventricles and into the subarachnoid space via the median and lateral apertures. Some CSF flows through the central canal of the spinal cord. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid villi.

Lateral ventricle Anterior horn Septum pellucidum Interventricular foramen Inferior horn Third ventricle Lateral aperture Cerebral aqueduct Fourth ventricle Central canal (a) Anterior view Figure 7.18a

Lateral ventricle Anterior horn Posterior horn Interventricular foramen Third ventricle Inferior horn Cerebral aqueduct Median aperture Fourth ventricle Lateral aperture Central canal (b) Left lateral view Figure 7.18b

4 Superior sagittal sinus Arachnoid villus Choroid plexus Subarachnoid space Arachnoid mater Corpus callosum Meningeal dura mater Periosteal dura mater Interventricular foramen 1 Right lateral ventricle (deep to cut) Third ventricle 3 Choroid plexus of fourth ventricle Cerebral aqueduct Lateral aperture CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of each ventricle. 1 Fourth ventricle 2 Median aperture CSF flows through the ventricles and into the subarachnoid space via the median and lateral apertures. Some CSF flows through the central canal of the spinal cord. 2 Central canal of spinal cord (c) CSF circulation CSF flows through the subarachnoid space. 3 CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid villi. 4 Figure 7.18c

Homeostatic Imbalance Hydrocephalus CSF accumulates and exerts pressure on the brain if not allowed to drain Possible in an infant because the skull bones have not yet fused In adults, this situation results in brain damage

Figure 7.19

Blood-Brain Barrier Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body Excludes many potentially harmful substances Useless as a barrier against some substances Fats and fat soluble molecules Respiratory gases Alcohol Nicotine Anesthesia

Traumatic Brain Injuries Concussion Slight brain injury No permanent brain damage unless multiple concussions occur Contusion Nervous tissue destruction occurs Nervous tissue does not regenerate Cerebral edema Swelling from the inflammatory response May compress and kill brain tissue

Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) or Stroke Result from a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies Loss of some functions or death may result Hemiplegia  One-sided paralysis Aphasis  Damage to speech center in left hemisphere Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)  temporary brain ischemia (restriction of blood flow) Warning signs for more serious CVAs

Alzheimer’s Disease Progressive degenerative brain disease Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers within neurons Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion, and ultimately, hallucinations and death