 Systematic desensitization ◦ Technique developed by Joseph Wolpe  Teach relaxation skills  Create fear hierarchy  Sufferers learn to relax while facing feared objects  Since relaxation is incompatible with fear, the relaxation response is thought to substitute for the fear response ◦ Several types:  In vivo desensitization (live)  Covert desensitization (imagined)

 Guided Reduction in fear, anxiety or aversion  Attained by gradually increasing anxiety- triggering stimuli while maintaining relaxation  Very effectively used for phobias, intense, unrealistic fears  Hierarchy  Rank-ordered series of steps, amounts, or degrees  Reciprocal Inhibition  One emotional state is used to block another; impossible to be anxious and relaxed at the same time

 Model: Live or filmed person who serves as an example for observational learning or vicarious conditioning  Vicarious Desensitization  Reduction in fear that takes place secondhand when a client watches models perform the feared behavior  Bandura: Observational learning  Virtual Reality Exposure  Presents fear stimuli to patients in a computerized controlled fashion (ex: fear of flying in airplane)

Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs. Advantageous for skill acquisition Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. - Slower acquisition in the beginning, but shows greater resistance to extinction later on. - Used to strengthen established behaviors - Usually necessary for the progression to naturally occurring reinforcement

 Basic Schedules of Reinforcement ◦ Ratio (instances) and Interval (time  Ratio schedules require a quantity of responses before one response produces reinforcement  Interval schedules require and elapse of (clock) time before a response produces reinforcement. ◦ Fixed (specific) and Variable (unpredictable)

 Fixed Schedules ◦ With a fixed schedule, the response ratio or the time requirement remains constant.  Fixed Ratio 4 (FR 4) – Reinforcement is delivered after every 4 th correct response.  Fixed Interval 2 min (FI 2) – Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after the 2 minutes have elapsed. ◦ When you want Consistency of performance  Produces a typical pattern of responding  After the first response of the ratio requirement, subject completes required responses with little hesitation  Post reinforcement pause follows reinforcement

 Variable Schedules ◦ The response ratio or the time requirement can change from one reinforced response to another. ◦ Variable Ratio – 5 (VR 5). An average of every 5 th correct occurrence  Ex: Reinforce after the 2 nd, 6 th, 4 th and 8 th responses ◦ Variable Interval 2 minute (VI 2). Reinforcing the first occurrence after an averaged elapsed time of 2 minute  Ex: reinforce after 30 sec, 1 min, 4 min, 2.5 min ◦ Used to strengthen established behaviors ◦ Shows greater resistance to extinction later on

Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified quantity of responses.  The faster the response, the more rewards  Very high rate of responding  Great for training, learning an association  Often produces a post-reinforcement pause Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable quantity of responses.  Produce consistent, steady response rates  Excellent for maintaining behavior  Very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability  Does not produce a post-reinforcement pause

Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces only after the first correct response following a specified time period.  Slow to moderate rate of response  Higher rate of responding toward end of interval  Great for training, learning an association  Often produces a post-reinforcement pause Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces only after the first correct response following an unpredictable time period.  Produce constant, stable response rates  Excellent for maintaining behavior  Typically produces few hesitations between responses  Harder to extinguish because of unpredictability  The larger the average interval, the lower the overall rate of response  Does not produce a post-reinforcement pause

Variable Interval Number of responses Time (minutes) Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Fixed Interval Steady responding Rapid responding near time for reinforcement 80

 Schedules of Differential Reinforcement of Rates of Responding ◦ Provides an intervention for behavior problems associated with rate of response. ◦ Variation of ratio schedules ◦ Differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH)  Reinforcement of responses higher than a predetermined criterion. ◦ Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates (DRL)  Responses are reinforced only when they are lower than the criterion.

 Progressive Schedules of Reinforcement ◦ Systematically thins each successive reinforcement opportunity independent of the participant’s behavior.  Progressive Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement (PR)  Progressive Interval Schedules of Reinforcement (PI) ◦ Using Progressive Schedules for Intervention  Systematically increasing the ratio or interval requirements for reinforcement

 Stimulus control occurs when ◦ The rate, latency, duration, or amplitude of a response is altered ◦ In the presence of an antecedent stimulus  Stimulus control is acquired when ◦ Responses are reinforced only in the presence of a specific stimulus  Known as the discriminative stimulus (S D ) ◦ And not in the presence of other stimuli  Known as stimulus deltas (S  

 Stimulus Generalization  A tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that are similar, but not identical to, a conditioned stimulus  If Bob was conditioned to answer the phone to a bell, Bob will also respond to a buzzer or a tone  Stimulus Discrimination  The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli  Bob has learned to answer the phone to a bell, answer the door after a different bell, awaken after an alarm clock bell

 Stimulus discrimination training ◦ Requires one behavior ◦ Two antecedent stimulus conditions (the S D and the S  )  Responses that occur in the presence of the S D are reinforced (thus, the response increases in the presence of the S D )  Responses that occur in the presence of the S  are not reinforced (this, the response decreases in the presence of the S   ◦ Can also result in a lesser amount or quality of reinforcement  Consistent use of reinforcers contingent upon correct responding to the S D is critical

SDSD ResponseS R+ Telephone ringsPick up phone and say “hello” Friendly conversation SS SOSO Doorbell ringsPick up phone and say “hello” Friendly conversation withheld Response

 Stimulus generalization across all red objects ◦ Light red to dark red ◦ Different objects (car, ball, pencil)  Stimulus discrimination between red and other colors ◦ Red ball vs. yellow ball ◦ Red dress vs. blue dress

 Extinction is a procedure in which reinforcement of a previously reinforce behavior is discontinued; as a result, occurrences of that behavior decrease in the future.

 Extinction is a procedure that provides zero probability of reinforcement  The effectiveness of extinction is dependent primarily on the identification of reinforcing consequences and consistent application of the procedure  Extinction does not require the application of aversive stimuli to decrease behavior.  The extinction procedure does not prevent occurrences of a problem behavior.  The environment is changed so that the problem behavior will no longer produce the maintaining consequences.

S D Tap on faucet marked with blue dot or letter “C” Response Turn tap with blue dot or “C” S R+ Cold water withheld Turning tap marked with blue dot or “C” occurs less often in the future EO Deprived of water for a long period of time and person has history of reinforcement for getting water when turning the “C” tap Let’s assume the tap is broken or the water has been turned off to the tap.

 Procedural forms of extinction involve “ignoring” the problem behavior.  Functional forms of extinction involve withholding the maintaining reinforcers.  Applications of the procedural form of extinction are often ineffective.  When the extinction procedure is matched to the behavioral function, the intervention is usually effective.

 Confusing forgetting and extinction ◦ In forgetting, a behavior is weakened by the passage of time during which the individual does not have an opportunity to emit the behavior. ◦ In extinction, behavior is weakened because it does not produce reinforcement.

 Extinction of Behavior Maintained by Positive Reinforcement ◦ Behaviors maintained by positive reinforcement become extinct when those behaviors do not produce the reinforcer.  Extinction of Behavior Maintained by Negative Reinforcement ◦ Behaviors maintained by negative reinforcement (escape extinction) become extinct when those behaviors do not remove the aversive stimulus ◦ Ex: The individual cannot escape from the aversive situation.

 Extinction of Behavior Maintained by Automatic Reinforcement ◦ Behaviors maintained by automatic reinforcement are placed on extinction by masking or removing the sensory consequence (sensory extinction) ◦ Not a recommended treatment option for problem behavior, even self-stimulatory behaviors that are maintained by social consequences or negative reinforcement.

 Gradual Decrease in Frequency and Amplitude ◦ Extinction produces a gradual reduction in behavior ◦ However, when reinforcement is removed abruptly, numerous unreinforced responses can follow  Extinction Burst ◦ An immediate increase in the frequency of the response after the removal of the positive, negative, or automatic reinforcement.

 Spontaneous Recovery ◦ The behavior that diminished during the extinction process recurs even though the behavior does not produce reinforcement ◦ Short-lived and limited if the extinction procedure remains in effect.  Resistance to Extinction ◦ Behaviors previously reinforced intermittently are generally more resistant to extinction.

 Extinction Burst Before Extinction (Reinforcement) During Extinction Extinction Burst Spontaneous Recovery

 Number, Magnitude, and Quality of Reinforcement ◦ The number of times a behavior produces reinforcement may influence resistance to extinction. ◦ A behavior with a long history of reinforcement may have more resistance to extinction than a behavior with a shorter history of reinforcement

 Response Effort ◦ The effort required for a response apparently influences its resistance to extinction.  A response requiring great effort diminishes more quickly during extinction than a response requiring less effort.  Number of Previous Extinction Trials ◦ Successive applications of conditioning and extinction may influence the resistance to extinction.

 Identify and withhold all reinforcers maintaining the problem behavior  Withholding reinforcement consistently (single most difficult aspect)  Combining extinction with other procedures such as differential reinforcement and antecedent procedures  Using instructions  Planning for extinction-produced aggression, replacement behaviors  Increasing the number of extinction trials  All individuals in contact with the learner must apply the same extinction procedure  Guarding against unintentional extinction; do not extinguish good behaviors!  Maintaining extinction: leave extinction procedures in effect permanently  When not to use extinction ◦ If the behavior placed on extinction is likely to be imitated by others. ◦ If the behavior is extreme, harmful to self or others or very destructive to property, it needs to be controlled with the most rapid and humane procedure available.  Extinction as a singular intervention is not recommended in such situations.

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