“Evoluzione epistemologica e metodologica nell’analisi di fenomeni cognitivi nel Regno animale” Enrico Alleva e Simone Macrì Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Roma, Italy. Laboratorio di Neuroetica e cognizione sociale Roma,

Charles Darwin

Contribution to comparative psychology: methodology Questionnaire administered to collaborators aimed at evaluating the expression of emotions across different races.

[…] Dr. J. Crichton Browne has also often noticed in melancholic patients who keep their eyebrows persistently oblique, "a peculiar acute arching of the upper eyelid." A trace of this may be observed by comparing the right and left eyelids of the young man in the photograph (fig. 2, Plate II.); […] […] But the most conspicuous result of the opposed contraction of the above- named muscles, is exhibited by the peculiar furrows formed on the forehead. […] Contribution to comparative psychology: methodology

Fig. 9. Cat, savage and prepared to fight. Fig. 10. Cat in an affectionate frame of mind. Fig. 15. Cat terrified at a dog. Contribution to comparative psychology: methodology

Jane Goodall (1934-)

Donald R. Griffin ( )

Aldo Fasolo ( )

Ethical considerations P. Bateson, When to experiment on animals. New Scientist, 109 (1986), pp. 30–32

Bateson, P. (1981) Ontogeny of behaviour. Br Med Bull 37, Keeping in mind Patrick Bateson ’ s cardinal view of neurobehavioral development in mammals as a process akin to the metamorphosis of a caterpillar into a butterfly

Morris Water Maze

Barnes Maze

The hot-plate test How do we measure pain in laboratory animals?

NOCICEPTIVE RESPONSES Forepaw licking Standing on hindlimbs and licking forepaws in a washing action Hindpaw licking Head tilted towards hindpaw with ventral surface angled upwards Testicle licking Self explained, rare EXPLORATORY/ESCAPE RESPONSES Wall rearing Standing on hindlimbs and touching the wall of the apparatus with the forepaws Rearing Standing on hindlimbs Jumping Jumping from the hot-plate surface From: F. Cirulli, L. De Acetis, E. Alleva (2000) How do we measure pain in laboratory animals?

Latency (s) * ** 55°C - Not isolated (5/cage) 52°C - Not isolated (5/cage) 52°C - Isolated 55°C - Isolated *p<0.05; **p<0.01 From: F. Cirulli, L. De Acetis, E. Alleva (2000) How do we measure pain in laboratory animals?

Luminous heat source Apparatus used for the tail-flick test The tail-flick test

How do we measure pain in laboratory animals? The formalin test

How do we measure pain in laboratory animals? Vacca et al., Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, Volume 26, Issue 3, 2012,

How do we measure pain in laboratory animals? Macrì et al., Neurotoxicity Research, Volume 24, 2013,

How do we measure pain in laboratory animals? Aghajani et al., PLoS ONE, 8(11):e80650.

Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

D J Langford et al. Science 2006;312: Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings of another Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

D J Langford et al. Science 2006;312: Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

D J Langford et al. Science 2006;312: Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

D J Langford et al. Science 2006;312: Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

D J Langford et al. Science 2006;312: Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

Formalin injection Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

Formalin injection Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

Formalin injection Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

Formalin injection Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

Role of stressors in mediating empathy response Martin et al., 2015, Current Biology 25, 326–332 Mice under variable stressful conditions Unfamiliar dyads (students) Unfamiliar dyads (after videogame playing)

Depressed state; pessimism Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness Loss of interest in daily activities Appetite or weight changes Sleep changes Anger or irritability Loss of energy Reckless behavior. Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

Depressed state; pessimism Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness Loss of interest in daily activities Appetite or weight changes Sleep changes Anger or irritability Loss of energy Reckless behavior. Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

Pessimism (cognitive bias?) “… people in a negative state are more likely to make negative judgements about future events or ambiguous stimuli (‘pessimism’) than people in positive states who show more optimistic judgements and interpretations…” (Mendl et al., 2009) Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

Pessimism (cognitive bias?) Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

Pessimism (cognitive bias?) Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals

Pessimism (cognitive bias?) Pain and distress in laboratory animals and the study of empathy and optimism in animals Harding and Mendl, Nature, 2004