The Scientific Revolution Key Concepts

I. The Aristotelian Universe Derived from Ptolemy, Aristotle, and Plato Derived from Ptolemy, Aristotle, and Plato Classical Writings “Christianized” Classical Writings “Christianized” Components of Medieval Cosmology Components of Medieval Cosmology Medieval Physics Medieval Physics Belief in “Matter” and “Form” Belief in “Matter” and “Form” Earth = Living, Protected Sphere Earth = Living, Protected Sphere

II. Scientific “Revolutionaries”

A. Copernicus ( ) Aim to glorify God Aim to glorify God Sun-centered universe Sun-centered universe Challenged circular orbits Challenged circular orbits Universe of staggering size Universe of staggering size Earth no different than any other planet Earth no different than any other planet On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)

B. Tycho Brahe ( ) Most sophisticated observatory of his day Most sophisticated observatory of his day Arrogant nobleman Arrogant nobleman Part Aristotelean/part Copernican Part Aristotelean/part Copernican Discovered comet shooting right through crystalline spheres Discovered comet shooting right through crystalline spheres Main contribution = the mass of data collected. Main contribution = the mass of data collected.

C. Johannes Kepler ( ) Student of Brahe Student of Brahe Planetary motion conforms to mathematical formula Planetary motion conforms to mathematical formula Elliptical orbits Elliptical orbits Planets do not move at uniform speeds in their orbits Planets do not move at uniform speeds in their orbits

D. Galileo Galilei ( ) Early practitioner of the experimental method Early practitioner of the experimental method Mathematical formula for acceleration of falling objects Mathematical formula for acceleration of falling objects Law of inertia Law of inertia His discoveries using the telescope His discoveries using the telescope Challenges categories of “form” and “matter” Challenges categories of “form” and “matter”

E. Isaac Newton ( ) Far from the perfect rationalist Far from the perfect rationalist A great synthesizer A great synthesizer Blended inductive and deductive methods Blended inductive and deductive methods Argued for a universe governed by natural laws Argued for a universe governed by natural laws Principia; Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687) Principia; Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)

F. Francis Bacon ( ) Father of the Scientific Revolution Father of the Scientific Revolution The Inductive Method The Inductive Method Emphasis on practical, useful knowledge Emphasis on practical, useful knowledge New attitude toward nature New attitude toward nature

G. Rene Descartes ( ) Significance of Doubt Significance of Doubt The Deductive Method The Deductive Method Spatial relationships can be expressed in mathematical formulas Spatial relationships can be expressed in mathematical formulas Father of “analytical geometry” Father of “analytical geometry”

III. Causes of the Scientific Revolution Medieval Intellectual Life and Medieval Universities Medieval Intellectual Life and Medieval Universities The Italian Renaissance The Italian Renaissance Renewed emphasis on mathematics Renewed emphasis on mathematics Renaissance system of patronage Renaissance system of patronage Navigational problems of long sea voyages Navigational problems of long sea voyages Better scientific instruments Better scientific instruments

IV. Consequences of the Scientific Revolution Rise of the “Scientific Community” Rise of the “Scientific Community” --Royal Society of London (1662) --Academy of Royal Sciences (1666) The modern scientific method The modern scientific method A universe ordered according to natural laws A universe ordered according to natural laws

IV. Consequences of the Scientific Revolution (cont) Laws discovered by human reason Laws discovered by human reason “De-Spiritualized” and de-mystified the Universe “De-Spiritualized” and de-mystified the Universe Mechanical View of the Universe Mechanical View of the Universe Deistic View of God Deistic View of God --God as the cosmic capitalist

The Age of Reason & Enlightenment “Siecle de Lumiere” “The Century of Light”

I. What was it? Progressive, Rationalistic, Humanistic worldview Progressive, Rationalistic, Humanistic worldview Emerged out of the Scientific Revolution and culminated in the French Revolution Emerged out of the Scientific Revolution and culminated in the French Revolution Spokesmen = Rising Middle Class Spokesmen = Rising Middle Class Paris = Center of Enlightenment Paris = Center of Enlightenment Optimism about mankind’s abilities Optimism about mankind’s abilities

II. Key Ideas Distrust of Tradition and Revealed Religion Distrust of Tradition and Revealed Religion Scientific method could be applied to society as well Scientific method could be applied to society as well Society can get better as risks are taken Society can get better as risks are taken Man is naturally good Man is naturally good Good life is on earth Good life is on earth

III. An Attack on the Old Regime

 Political History Reform  Intellectual History Newtonian Physics Reason  Cultural HistoryIndividualism  Social HistoryIncreased literacy Age of Aristocracy  Economic HistoryMercantilism to Capitalism An Overview of the 18 th Century

 Great Britain Constitutional Monarchy  France Royal Absolutism (cultural and religious unity)  Prussia, Russia, “Enlightened Austrian Empire Despotism”  Ottoman Empire Traditional Empire 18 th Century Politics

A. The World of the Old Regime Built on tradition Built on tradition World of hierarchy, privilege and inequality World of hierarchy, privilege and inequality Allied with the Church Allied with the Church Challenged by the reform impulse of supporters of the Enlightenment Challenged by the reform impulse of supporters of the Enlightenment

B. Conflict with the Capitalistic Middle Class Support for the Middle Class social order against the traditional social order Support for the Middle Class social order against the traditional social order Size and increasing power of the Middle Class Size and increasing power of the Middle Class New notion of wealth New notion of wealth Tension and discord created by the Middle Class Tension and discord created by the Middle Class

C. Popularization of Science The popularity of science in the 17 th and 18 th centuries The popularity of science in the 17 th and 18 th centuries Conversations on the Plurality of the Worlds (1686)—Bernard de Fontenelle Conversations on the Plurality of the Worlds (1686)—Bernard de Fontenelle The Scientific Revolution promised the comprehensibility of the workings of the universe The Scientific Revolution promised the comprehensibility of the workings of the universe

D. A New World of Uncertainties The Idea of Progress The Idea of Progress The anti-religious implications of the Enlightenment The anti-religious implications of the Enlightenment The relativity of truth and morality The relativity of truth and morality

IV. The Philosophes 18 th century French intellectuals 18 th century French intellectuals Interest in addressing a broad audience Interest in addressing a broad audience Committed to reform Committed to reform Celebrated the scientific revolution Celebrated the scientific revolution Science applied to society Science applied to society

V. The Problem of Censorship The attempt of the Old Regime to control new thinking The attempt of the Old Regime to control new thinking Publishers and writers hounded by censors Publishers and writers hounded by censors Over 1000 booksellers and authors imprisoned in the Bastille in the early 1700’s Over 1000 booksellers and authors imprisoned in the Bastille in the early 1700’s

VI. The Role of the Salon Protection and encouragement offered by French aristocratic women in their private drawing rooms Protection and encouragement offered by French aristocratic women in their private drawing rooms Feminine influence on the Enlightenment Feminine influence on the Enlightenment

The Origins of Enlightenment Scientific: Scientific: Newton’s system was synonymous with the empirical and the practical. Newton’s system was synonymous with the empirical and the practical. Scientific laws could be expressed as universal mathematical formulas. Scientific laws could be expressed as universal mathematical formulas. Science allowed alternatives to be imagined in everything from politics to religion. Science allowed alternatives to be imagined in everything from politics to religion.

The Origins of Enlightenment (cont’d.) Religious: Religious: Physico-theology an attempt (inspired by science ) to explain God’s Providence by reference to his work in nature and not primarily thru his biblical Word. Physico-theology an attempt (inspired by science ) to explain God’s Providence by reference to his work in nature and not primarily thru his biblical Word. Support of a “rational” religion, free from mysteries, miracles, and superstitions. Support of a “rational” religion, free from mysteries, miracles, and superstitions.

The Origins of Enlightenment (cont’d.) Religious: Religious: Deism the belief in the existence of a God or supreme being but a denial of a revealed religion, basing one’s belief on the light of nature and reason. Deism the belief in the existence of a God or supreme being but a denial of a revealed religion, basing one’s belief on the light of nature and reason. Deists saw no point in any particular religion; they recognized only a distant God, uninvolved in the daily life of man. Deists saw no point in any particular religion; they recognized only a distant God, uninvolved in the daily life of man.

The Origins of Enlightenment (cont’d.) Religious: Religious: Pantheism the belief that God and nature are one and the same. Pantheism the belief that God and nature are one and the same. Gradually, highly educated Protestants and Catholics thought more about God’s work as revealed thru science than thru the Scriptures. Gradually, highly educated Protestants and Catholics thought more about God’s work as revealed thru science than thru the Scriptures.

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment 1. Rationalism: 1. Rationalism: Reason is the arbiter of all things. Reason is the arbiter of all things. 2. Cosmology: 2. Cosmology: A new concept of man, his existence on earth, and the place of the earth in the universe. A new concept of man, his existence on earth, and the place of the earth in the universe. 3. Secularism: 3. Secularism: Application of the methods of science to religion and philosophy. Application of the methods of science to religion and philosophy.

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment (cont’d.) 4. Scientific Method: 4. Scientific Method: Mathematical analysis. Mathematical analysis. Experimentation. Experimentation. Inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning. 5. Utilitarianism: 5. Utilitarianism: The greatest good for the greatest number. The greatest good for the greatest number. 6. Tolerance: 6. Tolerance: No opinion is worth one’s neighbor’s life. No opinion is worth one’s neighbor’s life.

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment (cont’d.) 7. Optimism & Self-Confidence: 7. Optimism & Self-Confidence: The belief that man is intrinsically good. The belief that man is intrinsically good. The belief in social progress. The belief in social progress. 8. Freedom: 8. Freedom: Of thought and expression. Of thought and expression. Bri ng liberty to all men (modern battle against absolutism). Bri ng liberty to all men (modern battle against absolutism). 9. Education of the masses. 9. Education of the masses.

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment (cont’d.) 10. Legal Reforms: 10. Legal Reforms: Justice, kindness and charity. Justice, kindness and charity. No torture or indiscriminate incarceration. No torture or indiscriminate incarceration. Due process of law. Due process of law. 11. Constitutionalism: 11. Constitutionalism: Written documents listing citizens’ rights. Written documents listing citizens’ rights. 12. Cosmopolitanism 12. Cosmopolitanism Viewing all races and continents with the same human interest and concern. Viewing all races and continents with the same human interest and concern.

VIII. Famous Enlightenment Thinkers

The Enlightened Individual Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great publicists of the new thinking— Change & Progress. Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great publicists of the new thinking— Change & Progress. They were students of society who analyzed its evils and advanced reforms. They were students of society who analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.

The Great Debate Reason & Logic v. Traditions & Superstition * Rationalism * Empiricism * Tolerance * Skepticism * Deism * Nostalgia for the past * Organized religions * Irrationalism * Emotionalism

A. Baron de Montesquieu ( ) The Spirit of the Laws (1748) The Spirit of the Laws (1748) Despotism could be avoided if political power were divided and shared by a diversity of classes Despotism could be avoided if political power were divided and shared by a diversity of classes Power must check power Power must check power Admired British government Admired British government French parlements must be defenders of liberty French parlements must be defenders of liberty Three types of government: Three types of government: Monarchy, Republic, Despotism.

B. John Locke (1632 – 1704) Two Treatises of Government (1689). Two Treatises of Government (1689). An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). The individual must become a rational creature. The individual must become a rational creature. Virtue can be learned and practiced. Virtue can be learned and practiced.

B. Locke (cont’d). Human beings possess free will. Human beings possess free will. They should be prepared for freedom. They should be prepared for freedom. Obedience should be out of conviction, not out of fear. Obedience should be out of conviction, not out of fear. Legislators owe their power to a contract with the people. Legislators owe their power to a contract with the people. Neither kings nor wealth are divinely ordained. Neither kings nor wealth are divinely ordained.

B. Locke (cont’d). There are certain natural rights that are endowed by God to all human beings. There are certain natural rights that are endowed by God to all human beings. Life, Liberty, & Property! Life, Liberty, & Property! The Doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings was nonsense. The Doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings was nonsense. Favored a republic as the best form of government. Favored a republic as the best form of government.

C. Voltaire ( ) Enthusiasm for English institutions Enthusiasm for English institutions Reformer not a revolutionary Reformer not a revolutionary Admirer of Louis XIV Admirer of Louis XIV Relationship with Frederick the Great Relationship with Frederick the Great “Ecrasez l’infame” or “crush the infamous.” “Ecrasez l’infame” or “crush the infamous.” Candide (1759) Candide (1759)

C. Voltaire (cont’d.) Every man is guilty of all the good he didn’t do. Every man is guilty of all the good he didn’t do. God is a comedian playing to an audience too afraid to laugh. God is a comedian playing to an audience too afraid to laugh. Men are equal ; it is not birth but virtue that make s the difference. Men are equal ; it is not birth but virtue that make s the difference. It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong. It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong. I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it. I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.

D. Baron Paul d’Holbach ( ) Deterministic view of human beings Deterministic view of human beings Free will, God and immortality of the soul are foolish myths Free will, God and immortality of the soul are foolish myths His views dealt the unity of the Enlightenment a severe blow His views dealt the unity of the Enlightenment a severe blow Other thinkers repelled by this inflexible atheism Other thinkers repelled by this inflexible atheism System of Nature (1770). System of Nature (1770).

E. David Hume ( ) Human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions Human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions Reason cannot decipher anything about the origins of the universe or the existence of God Reason cannot decipher anything about the origins of the universe or the existence of God Hume’s rationalistic inquiry results in undermining the Enlightenment confidence in reason itself Hume’s rationalistic inquiry results in undermining the Enlightenment confidence in reason itself Treatise of Human Nature (1739) Treatise of Human Nature (1739)

F. Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( ) His life His life Turned his withering critique of the Old Regime increasingly on the Enlightenment itself Turned his withering critique of the Old Regime increasingly on the Enlightenment itself Rather than liberation, rationalism and civilization destroy the individual Rather than liberation, rationalism and civilization destroy the individual Man by nature was solitary, good and free Man by nature was solitary, good and free

F. Rousseau (cont’d.) Civilization represents decay, not progress Civilization represents decay, not progress Emile (1762)—protect children from too many books Emile (1762)—protect children from too many books The Social Contract (1762) and the “General Will” The Social Contract (1762) and the “General Will” Civilized man is an alienated man Civilized man is an alienated man Transitional intellectual figure Transitional intellectual figure

G. Immanuel Kant ( ) One of few philosophes to live to see the French Revolution One of few philosophes to live to see the French Revolution Enlightenment was a personal process—release from immaturity Enlightenment was a personal process—release from immaturity More optimistic than Rousseau More optimistic than Rousseau “Dare to Know”— Enlightenment was an act of personal courage “Dare to Know”— Enlightenment was an act of personal courage Critique of Pure Reason (1781). Critique of Pure Reason (1781).

G. Immanuel Kant (cont’d.) Introduced the concept of “trancendentalism.” Introduced the concept of “trancendentalism.” The belief in the existence of a non-rational way to understand things. The belief in the existence of a non-rational way to understand things. The existence of neither time nor space is determined by empirical understanding. The existence of neither time nor space is determined by empirical understanding. They transcend sensory experience. They transcend sensory experience. They are pure (not empirical). They are pure (not empirical). Things like faith, pre-existence, life after death. Things like faith, pre-existence, life after death.

IX. Popularizing the Enlightenment

A. A Parisian Salon

B. Madame Geoffrin’s Salon

C. Denis Diderot ( )

D. Diderot’s Encyclopedie 28 volumes. 28 volumes. Alphabetical, cross-referenced, illustrated. Alphabetical, cross-referenced, illustrated. First published in First published in 1751.

D. Diderot’s Encyclopedie (cont’d.)

E. Reading During the Enlightenment Literacy rates: Literacy rates: 80% for men 60% for women 80% for men 60% for women Books were expensive (a days wages). Books were expensive (a days wages). Many readers for each book (20:1). Many readers for each book (20:1). Novels and plays. Novels and plays. Journals, memoirs, and “private lives.” Journals, memoirs, and “private lives.” Philosophy, history, and theology. Philosophy, history, and theology. Newspapers and political pamphlets. Newspapers and political pamphlets.

X. “Enlightened Despotism”

A. Frederick “the Great” of Prussia (r ) Succeeded his father, Frederick William I (the “Soldier King”). Succeeded his father, Frederick William I (the “Soldier King”). Referred to himself as “the First Servant of the State.” Referred to himself as “the First Servant of the State.”

B. Catherine “the Great” of Russia (r ). German Princess. German Princess. Reformer or Despot?? Reformer or Despot?? Russo-Turkish War Pugachev Rebellion Partitions of Poland

C. Joseph II of Austria (r ) Son of Maria Theresa. Son of Maria Theresa. Holy Roman Emperor. Holy Roman Emperor. Abolition of serfdom and feudal dues. Abolition of serfdom and feudal dues. Partitions of Poland. Partitions of Poland.

Legacy of the Enlightenment? The democratic revolutions begun in America in 1776 and continued in Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially Paris in the late 1780s, put every Western government on the defensive. The democratic revolutions begun in America in 1776 and continued in Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially Paris in the late 1780s, put every Western government on the defensive. Reform, democracy, and republicanism had been placed irrevocably on the Western agenda. Reform, democracy, and republicanism had been placed irrevocably on the Western agenda.

Legacy of the Enlightenment? (cont’d.) New forms of civil society arose—clubs, salons, private academies, lending libraries, and professional/scientific societies. New forms of civil society arose—clubs, salons, private academies, lending libraries, and professional/scientific societies. 19c conservatives blamed it for the modern “egalitarian disease” (once reformers began to criticize established institutions, they didn’t know where and when to stop!). 19c conservatives blamed it for the modern “egalitarian disease” (once reformers began to criticize established institutions, they didn’t know where and when to stop!).

Legacy of the Enlightenment? (cont’d.) It established a materialistic tradition based on an ethical system derived solely from a naturalistic account of the human condition (the Religion of Nature). It established a materialistic tradition based on an ethical system derived solely from a naturalistic account of the human condition (the Religion of Nature). Theoretically endowed with full civil and legal rights, the individual had come into existence as a political and social force to be reckoned with. Theoretically endowed with full civil and legal rights, the individual had come into existence as a political and social force to be reckoned with.