© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved 2 Oceanography, An Invitation to Marine Science | 9e Tom Garrison A History of Marine Science

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved The ocean did not prevent the spread of humanity Any coastal culture skilled at raft building or small boat navigation had economic and nutritional advantages over less skilled competitors The first global exploratory expeditions were undertaken by Chinese admiral Zheng He beginning in 1405 Key Concepts

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved The three expeditions of Captain James Cook, British Royal Navy, were perhaps the first to apply the principles of scientific investigation to the ocean The voyage of HMS Challenger (1872– 1876) was the first extensive expedition dedicated exclusively to research Modern oceanography is guided by consortia of institutions and governments Key Concepts (cont’d.)

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Early peoples traveled the ocean for economic reasons –The first cartographers (chart makers) came from the Mediterranean Systematic study of the ocean began at the Library of Alexandria Eratosthenes accurately calculated the size and shape of Earth –Invented latitude and longitude 2.1 Understanding the Ocean Began with Voyaging for Trade and Exploration

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Erastosthenes’s Method for Calculating the Circumference of Earth

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved 60°N 30°N 30°S 0° 60°W North Pole South Pole 30°E 0°30°W 60°W 0° North Pole South Pole 60°N 30°N 30°S 0° North Pole South Pole Stepped Art Latitude Equator Longitude Prime meridien

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Where We Are: Latitude and Longitude

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Seafaring expanded human horizons –Polynesians ventured across the South Pacific Viking raiders discovered North America The Chinese undertook organized voyages of discovery –The Chinese were skilled navigators –Employed many technical innovations for longer sea voyages Seafaring: The Vikings and the Chinese

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal –Established a center for marine science and navigation Christopher Columbus –Discovered the New World Ferdinand Magellan –Circumnavigated the globe 2.2 The Age of European Discovery

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese Explorer

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Captain James Cook – first marine scientist –First scientific sea voyage – HMS Endeavour 2.3 Voyaging Combined with Science to Advance Ocean Studies

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved An accurate determination of longitude was key to oceanic exploration and mapping –Early European explorers used the stars –Need an accurate chronometer (clock) for use in day time Invented by John Harrison Advances in Accurate Mapping

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved The United States Exploring Expedition Matthew Maury discovered worldwide patterns of wind and ocean currents –Built on the work of Benjamin Franklin The Challenger expedition –Inspired by Charles Darwin’s Beagle voyage –First “oceanography” 2.4 The First Scientific Expeditions Were Undertaken by Governments

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved The Challenger Expedition

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Sea power – military capacity on the ocean Alfred Thayer Mahan – The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, Ocean Studies Have Military Applications

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Polar exploration –Fridtjof Nansen allowed his ship to be trapped in Arctic ice and drift for four years –1958 – first submarine sailed beneath the North Pole New ships for new tasks –Meteor expedition used modern optical and electronic equipment Echo sounder 2.5 Contemporary Oceanography Makes Use of Modern Technology

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Stepped Art Beam of sound waves travels to bottom and is reflected back to ship Depth = V T—2T—2 ( ) Figure 2-28

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Echo Sounders

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Oceanographic institutions oversee complex research projects –First founded in Monaco in 1906 –In United States: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Scripps Institution of Oceanography NOAA – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Contemporary Oceanography Makes Use of Modern Technology

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Remotely operated vehicles Robot Devices

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved TOPEX/Poseidon – can determine height of the sea surface Jason-1 – climate interactions AQUA – water cycle GPS satellites – positioning on the ocean Satellites Have Become Important Tools

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Science and exploration go hand-in-hand Scientific oceanography began with the Challenger expedition Oceanographic institutions mark our path to the future Chapter in Perspective

© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved How do modern navigators find their position at sea? With all the institutions involved in marine science today, is there a place for individual initiative in marine science? If so, in what way? Some Questions from Students