European Revolution & Enlightenment

The Scientific Revolution

Beginning in the 1500s, new ideas about science changed the way Europeans thought about the world. This period of change was called the scientific revolution. With its emphasis on reasoned observation and systematic measurement, the scientific revolution changed the way people viewed the world and their place in it.

Since ancient times, people had believed the earth was at the center of the universe (which was a teaching of the Catholic Church); however, in the 1500s and 1600s, scientists showed that the planets revolved around the sun.

Nicolaus Copernicus developed the heliocentric theory, which states that the sun is at the center of the universe. Copernicus believed (accurately) that the earth and other planets rotated around the sun.

Johannes Kepler discovered planetary motion. He mathematically proved Copernicus’ heliocentric theory and showed that planets follow elliptical (oval- shaped) paths.

Galileo Galilei used a telescope to support the heliocentric theory. What Galileo saw through his telescope convinced him Copernicus was right about the sun being at the center of the universe; however, when Galileo published his ideas, the Catholic Church forced him to recant his teachings.

While the discoveries of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo upset the Catholic Church and some Europeans, over time a new way of thinking about science emerged.

One of the important developments of the scientific revolution was the formulation of the scientific method – a way of finding out information based on experimentation and observation.

With the scientific method, scientists made important advances in many areas. For example, Isaac Newton discovered the Laws of Gravity. Newton’s discovery showed a force (gravity) kept the planets in their orbits around the sun, thus further proving Copernicus’ heliocentric theory.

The scientific method also changed the way people thought. To this end, another important development of the scientific revolution was emphasis on reason and systematic observation of nature. For example, Rene Descartes argued that human reasoning was the best way to gain understanding.

Another pioneer of the scientific revolution was William Harvey, who discovered the circulation of blood. From his work on human anatomy, Harvey concluded that blood circulates around the body.

Ultimately, the expansion of scientific knowledge was an important development of the scientific revolution. knowledge Scientific Revolution =

The Age of Enlightenment

During the Scientific Revolution, scientists used reason to explain why things happened in the universe. By the early 1700s, Europeans also used reason to discover natural laws of human behavior that explained why people act like they do. With these laws, they hoped to solve the problems of society. This period of time was known as the Age of Enlightenment. Age of

Enlightenment thinkers believed that human progress was possible through the application of scientific knowledge and reason to issues of law and government. They applied reason to the human world, not just the natural world. Scientific Knowledge / Reason + Law / Government Issues = Human Progress

What do you think? Are people naturally more… -Good and kind to others? -Selfish and greedy?

Thomas Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes, an Englishman, believed that humans are naturally violent and disorganized. To avoid chaos, Hobbes believed, these impulses must be curbed and absolute monarchy is the best way to do this.

Hobbes believed humans exist in a primitive “state of nature” and consent to government for self-protection. Hobbes believed that life in a nation without a strong government would be “nasty, brutish, and short.”

Hobbes wrote a book, Leviathan, in which he suggested that people make a contract with their ruler in which they give up their freedom in return for wise government, protection, and order.

John Locke

John Locke, also an Englishman, had a more positive view of human nature. Locke thought that natural law explained that people are reasonable creatures with moral values.

Locke believed people are sovereign (independent and self-governing) and consent of the governed for protection of natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

Locke believed people are born with natural rights that include life, liberty, and the right to own property. Locke believed government is a contract made by the people to protect their natural rights (rights that belong to all humans from birth), and that if a government violates these rights, the people are entitled to rebel and set up another government.

Locke wrote Two Treatises on Government, in which he described his ideal form of government – a constitutional monarchy, where the ruler’s power is limited by the people’s rights.

Voltaire

A Frenchman, Voltaire believed religious toleration should triumph over religious fanaticism. Voltaire believed in the separation of church and state.

Voltaire mocked the church and nobility in satires and was eventually forced into exile in Britain, where he praised Britain for its religious liberty and freedom of speech.

Largely a result of Voltaire, the Enlightenment stimulated religious tolerance.

Montesquieu

Also a Frenchman, Baron de Montesquieu was equally impressed by British political life.

Montesquieu believed the best way to protect the people against the kind of tyranny he saw in France was to separate the functions of government; therefore, Montesquieu believed the best form of government includes a separation of powers.

Montesquieu wrote The Spirit of Laws, in which he suggests the functions of government be assigned to three separate branches – legislative, executive, and judicial.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, another Frenchman, extended John Locke’s ideas. In The Social Contract, Rousseau wrote that government is a contract between rulers and the people.

Rousseau believed not only that people make a contract with their government, but that government is directly responsible to the people.

Rousseau’s ideal was the Athenian form of democracy, where the citizenry made the laws; however, when he wrote The Social Contract in the 1770s, most people were ruled by absolute monarchs. Rousseau believed unjust government should be overthrown. His ideas challenged directly challenged the power of the monarch, the nobility, and the church.

Influence of the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment fueled democratic revolutions around the world, including those in the Americas and France. To this end, Enlightenment ideas influenced the leaders of the American Revolution.

Enlightenment ideas were also incorporated into the Declaration of Independence, which was written by Thomas Jefferson.

The Constitution of the United States of America and the Bill of Rights also incorporated Enlightenment ideas. For example, Montesquieu’s three separate branches of government were incorporated into the Constitution.

The Expansion of Arts and Literature

The 16 th, 17 th, and 18 th centuries brought many changes in the arts, literature, and political philosophy.

Paintings depicted classical subjects, public events, natural scenes, and living people (portraits).

The French Romantic school painter Eugene Delacroix took his subjects from the past and created paintings full of drama and action. Lady Leading Liberty (1830)

The classical composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who was born in Salzburg in what is now Austria, put out over 600 compositions. Through his work, he stressed ideas like balance and elegance.

The German Baroque composer Johann Sebastian Bach wrote concertos – a new form of music – for particular groupings of instruments, helping lead to the birth of the modern orchestra.

It was during this period that that music changed from merely providing accompaniment for religious services, dance, and opera, to become an art in its own right.

New schools of art and forms literature evolved, such as the novel. The printing press and the spread of elementary schools meant more people were reading than ever before.

Spanish novelist Miguel de Cervantes wrote the novel Don Quixote during this period; it is one of the first known novels.

The Expansion of New Technology

The Age of Enlightenment is also known as the Age of Reason. The Age of Reason witnessed inventions and innovations in technology that stimulated trade and transportation.

For example, all-weather roads improved year- round transport and trade. These roads linked the major cities and capitals of Europe.

In addition, new designs in farm tools increased productivity and led to an agricultural revolution. Tools like the wheeled plow and the drill machine for sowing seed increased productivity.

Also, improvements in ship design lowered the cost of transport, as the time it took to cross bodies of water was reduced.

Characteristics of Absolute Monarchies

The Age of Absolutism takes its name from a series of European monarchs who increased the power of their central governments and had absolute power. central

Absolute monarchies took hold in Europe in the 1500s and 1600s in places like France and Russia.

Absolutism is much different than democracy. For example, power in a democracy comes by way of popular elections; in absolutism, power is inherited and comes via divine right (meaning monarchs claim their authority comes from God and they are responsible to Him alone.) A characteristic of an absolute monarchy is the concept of rule by divine right. Rule by Divine Right

In a democracy, power is based on the will of the people; in absolutism, a monarch has unlimited power. DEMOCRACYABSOLUTISM Power is based on the will of the people A monarch has unlimited power

In a democracy, everyone must obey the law and citizens have the right to criticize the government; in absolutism, the monarch is above the law and subjects must obey royal command without question. DEMOCRACYABSOLUTISM Everyone must obey the law Citizens have the right to criticize the government The monarch is above the law Subjects to the throne must obey royal command without question

In a democracy, citizens have the freedom to worship as they choose, and there is a separation of church and state; in absolutism, the monarch chooses the state religion and combines religious and political leadership. DEMOCRACYABSOLUTISM Citizens have the freedom to worship as they choose Separation of church and state The monarch chooses the state religion Religious and political leadership combined

In a democracy, government exists to serve the people; in absolutism, government exists for its own sake and the role of subjects is to serve the monarch. DEMOCRACYABSOLUTISM Government exists to serve the people Government exists for its own sake The role of subjects is to serve the monarch

It is important to note that in a democracy there is a sharing of power; conversely, a characteristic of an absolute monarchy is the centralization of power. DEMOCRACYABSOLUTISM Sharing of power Centralization of power

Louis XIV of France and Peter the Great of Russia were absolute monarchs.

Louis XIV (France)

The period from the 1560s to the 1590s was a turbulent time in France. Catholics fought bloody religious wars against the Huguenots (French Protestants). Then, in 1589, Henry IV became king and issued the Edict of Nantes, in which the Catholic monarchy granted Protestant Huguenots freedom of worship in France.

Henry IV and later kings increased royal power by making the government stronger (centralizing power) and controlling the nobles. central

Louis XIV of France continued to strengthen the French monarchy when he took control in 1643, just before his fifth birthday. Louis did not assume personal control of the government until the death of his chief minister in central

Louis XIV built the Palace of Versailles as a symbol of royal power. Because Louis believed in rule by divine right, having such an elaborate palace was important to him in showing the magnificence and power of the French monarchy. Louis even moved the French government from Paris to nearby Versailles.

Louis XIV ended up reigning as king for 72 years – longer than any other French king. During his reign, Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes, believing the Huguenots disrupted religious unity in France.

Peter the Great (Russia)

In 1682, Peter the Great became czar and ruler of Russia. He desired to make Russia modern and powerful. central

In his 36 years as czar, Peter the Great westernized Russia. He introduced western technology and forced the Russian people to become more western.

Peter the Great took ideas from Western Europe. He built a capital city, St. Petersburg, in western style. He also forced Russians to dress like western Europeans.

Development of the Rights of Englishmen

Whereas absolute monarchs had increased their power in places like France and Russia, Parliament had come to play an increasingly important role in the government of England.

Parliament was willing to levy taxes to pay the costs of government in England, as long as monarchs pursued a policy that was popular with the people. This was the case from 1485 to 1603 under the rule of Tudor kings and queens, who consulted Parliament first.

When the Stuarts came to power in 1603, they angered Parliament by acting like absolute rulers. One Stuart monarch, King Charles I, who became king of England in 1625, had a great deal of trouble with Parliament over the issues of taxation.

By 1640, Parliament was dominated by Puritans and enemies of Charles I; these enemies made sure Parliament could not be dismissed and executed the king’s chief advisors. Parliament banned the levy of any taxes it had not approved. This led to the king’s supporters withdrawing from Parliament and leaving it in the control of the king’s enemies.

By 1648, supporters of Charles I were defeated. Charles I was executed following a formal trial. England then became a republic under military rule with Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector.

In 1660, after a period of time as a republic, the restoration of Charles II, the son of Charles I, took place. Parliament was still not a permanent part of government, and Charles II ruled without Parliament for five years.

James II, the brother of Charles II, succeeded his brother as king. After he tried to increase the power of the English monarchy, influential nobles in England invited the king’s daughter (Mary II) and son-in-law (William) to rule England.

William and Mary were warmly welcomed in England. The change of power in which no fighting took place and William and Mary ascended to the throne of England is known as the Glorious Revolution.

The Glorious Revolution included an increase of parliamentary power over royal power. A series of parliamentary acts transformed England into a limited monarchy – a government in which a legislative body limits a monarch’s powers.

The most important parliamentary act that limited the English monarchy was the English Bill of Rights of 1689 – something accepted by William and Mary before they took power – which stated, among other things, that the monarch must work with Parliament and gave Parliament control of finances.

Also during the Glorious Revolution, there was development of political parties and factions in England. These political parties developed into an important part of the English government.