Leisure, Sport and Tourism: Politics, Policy and Planning A.J. Veal Chapter 6: Public Policymaking

Contents International dimensions Formal national constitutions Models of decision-making Urban growth regimes and governance of the local state

INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS: Agreements etc. (Table 6.1) UN terminology: Treaties – Matters of some gravity, typically requiring ratification – eg. Treaty of Rome, 1957 – origin of the EU Agreements – Less formal, narrower subject-matter, limited no. of states, technical/administrative, not subject to ratification – eg. General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT) – predecessor to WTO agreements Conventions – Instruments negotiated under the auspices of an international organization – eg. Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 ( UNICEF) – World Heritage Convention, 1972 (UNESCO)

Agreements contd Charters – Particularly formal and solemn instruments, such as the constituent treaty of an international organization – eg. UN Charter; Olympic Charter Protocols – An instrument 'subsidiary to a treaty' or 'framework’ – The Kyoto Protocol, 1997 re UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992 Declarations – often not binding – statement of aspirations – Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 1992

International Organisations – regulatory (Table 6.2) IATA – International Air Transport Authority ITU – International Telecommunications Union WTO – World Trade Organization WHC – World Heritage Committee of UNESCO – UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Org. CAS – Court of Arbitration for Sport WADA – World Anti-Doping Agency

International organisations – advisory, specialist, etc. WLO – World Leisure Organisation IOC – International Olympic Committee IPC – International Paralympic Committee IFs – International Federations of (individual) Sport CGF – Commonwealth Games Federation UNWTO – UN World Tourism Organisation IUCN – International Union for the Conservation of Nature Conservation

Supra-national bodies – eg. European Union (Box 6.1) 27 member countries cede power over (commercial) competition policy to European Commission This includes sport Sporting leagues are ‘uncompetitive’ because of collusion: – Player contracts – Broadcasting rights

FORMAL NATIONAL CONSTITUTIONS Unitary vs Federal (Table 6.3) Unitary: – only one level of government (+ local government) – Eg. UK(?), New Zealand, Ireland Federal: – Additional state/provincial level of government – Eg. USA, Australia Leisure, sport, tourism often administered by all levels (see Table 6.5)

Westminster model HEAD of STATE: Ceremonial President or Monarch PARLIAMENT Upper House (Senate/House of Lords*) Lower House (House of Reps/ House of Commons ELECTED GOVERNMENT Prime Minister (Head of govt) + Ministers * Hereditary/ appointed in UK

Presidential model: US style GOVERNMENT Executive President : Head of State and Head of Government Appointed Ministers ELECTED CONGRESS SENATE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Presidential model: French style As in Westminster system, but: – Elected Executive President, with: – specific areas of responsibility, typically: Appointing Prime Minister Foreign Affairs and Defence

Formal decision-making procedures Political parties form around ideologies/group interests (see Ch. 2) Members of parliament elected as members of political parties (+ independents) with manifesto/program Leader of party with majority forms government Laws created by Bills presented to, and approved by, both Houses Signed into law by Head of State – Bill becomes an Act

Part of the system: Quangos Quasi-Autonomous Non-Governmental Organisations Appointed/funded by govt (+ lotteries + license fees) ‘Arms length principle’ Used extensively in the arts, sport, public broad- casting: – Eg public broadcasting corporations (BBC, ABC, CBC) – Arts Councils – Sports Councils – Heritage Commissions

Part of the system: Non-profit/Voluntary sector Non-profit Trusts used in the arts, education Non-profit sector in sport – Governing bodies – Sport clubs – International Olympic Committee

Part of the system: Public-Private Partnerships Joint investment in a project by government (at any level) and private sector Typically via a jointly owned company See Urban Growth Regimes

MODELS OF DECISION-MAKING Power-based models Rationality models Public choice Institutional approaches Personality, cognition and information- processing

Power-based models Elitism – Power (formal and informal) is in the hand of elites – industry, money, class Pluralism – Power shared/competed for by many groups

Pluralism GOVERNMENT ELECTED REPRESENTATIVES The people/electors/ taxpayers/ratepayers Pressure groups Business/ professions Religious organisations etc.

Power-based models contd Marxism – The state supports the interests of capitalism Corporatism – Government controlled by industrial/commercial interests Professionalism – Power lies with professionals – eg. Public servants, Treasury economists Technocracy – Power wielded by technocrats – eg. defence/ nuclear Hallmark decision-making – Decisions made by govt/growth regimes for big projects without ‘due process’ – eg. large building projects, hosting the Olympic Games

Rationality models Rational-comprehensive model

Rational- comprehensive model (Fig. 6.3) 1. Terms of reference/brief 4. Environmental appraisal 2. Values/mission/vision/goals 5. Consult with stakeholders6. Develop options 7. Evaluate options 8. Decide strategy/goals/ objectives 9. Implement/manage 10. Monitor/evaluate/ Feedback 3. Decide planning approach

Rational-comprehensive model contd Unrealistic/impractical? Alternatives – Simon: ‘bounded rationality’ – Lindblom: disjointed incrementalism: ‘muddling through’ – Etzioni: mixed scanning

Other approaches Public choice model – Democratic process is similar to markets: – voting power = consumer market power Institutional approaches – Decision-making influenced by institutional structures Personal, cognition, information processing – Decision-making influenced by personality etc. of leaders

URBAN GROWTH REGIMES & GOVERNANCE OF THE LOCAL STATE Urban growth regimes: – Consortiums of politicians and business interests who pursue a particular growth agenda for a city Eg. Redevelopment of city centre; attracting a sport franchise; hosting Olympic Games Idea of the ‘local state’ – Governance = all ‘players’ in local state

Local State (Fig. 6.4) COUNCIL Elected councillors/ Mayor Paid council officers Higher levels of govt (Legal framework + funding) Political parties Citizens / ratepayers Trade unions Other statutory bodies Voluntary service- providing bodies Media Businesses/ Business organisations Pressure groups Clients