INTRODUCTION TO BIOTECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology Definition Biotechnology is defined by different organizations in different ways. Biotechnology is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of materials by biological agents to provide goods and services

History of biotechnology The history of biotechnology begins with zymotechnology with a focus on brewing techniques for beer. The Hungarian Karl Ereky coined the word "biotechnology" During 1919 to describe a technology based on converting raw materials into a more useful product.

For Ereky, the term "biotechnologie" indicated the process by which raw materials could be biologically upgraded into socially useful products. In 1920, Leads city council, U.K. established the Institute of Biotechnology. During 1970s, Biotechnology emerged as a new discipline, as a result of marriage of biological science with technology. In 1978, European Federation of Biotechnology was established In 1982, Government of India set up, the National Biotechnology Board.

In 1986, it became a separate department, Department of Biotechnology in the Ministry of Science and Technology. In 1988 United Nations proposed for the establishment of International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB). It has 2 centres, New Delhi (India) and Trietse.

Origins of Biotechnology With the birth of genetic engineering. There were two key events as scientific breakthroughs beginning the era that would unite genetics with biotechnology. the 1953 discovery of the structure of DNA, by Watson and Crick, the 1973 discovery by Cohen and Boyer of a recombinant DNA technique By which a section of DNA was cut from the plasmid of an E. coli bacterium and transferred into the DNA of another. This approach referred to as "genetic engineering," it came to be defined as the basis of new biotechnology.

The work of Swiss molecular biologist Werner Arber focused on specialized enzymes that digest, or “restrict,” the DNA of viruses infecting bacteria. In 1970 American molecular biologist Hamilton Smith and colleagues determined that restriction enzymes could cleave DNA molecules at precise and predictable locations. Hamilton concluded that the enzymes were able to recognize specific nucleotide sequences. In 1973 American biochemist Herb Boyer used restriction enzymes to produce a DNA molecule with genetic material from two different sources. This splicing technique is now known as recombinant DNA.

Boyer inserted foreign genes into plasmids and observed that the plasmids could replicate to make many copies of the inserted genes. Boyer, American biochemist Stanley Cohen, and other researchers demonstrated that inserting a recombinant DNA molecule into a host bacteria cell would lead to extremely rapid replication known as cloning. In 1980 American biochemist Kary Mullis developed PCR The speed and efficiency of DNA cloning were vastly improved in the 1980s with the invention of polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, British biochemist Frederick Sanger and his associates developed DNA sequencing techniques. Sanger’s methods used special compounds called dideoxy nucleotides, rapidly yielded the exact nucleotide sequence of a desired sample. With the use of automated equipment, the new techniques transformed genetic sequencing into a speedy, routine laboratory procedure. Many of the new techniques for isolating, sequencing, and replicating DNA have been put to practical use through the field of genetic engineering.

Agricultural biotechnology Agricultural biotechnology is usually dated back to 10,000 BC when farmers began to select the most suitable plants and animals for breeding 1860s, Gregor Mendel methodically recorded the passing of traits from one generation to the next by crossing different pea plants to produce offspring with red or white flowers, and wrinkled or smooth peas. He identified the principles of inheritance and marked the beginning of conventional biotechnology. Major advances in plant breeding followed the revelation of Mendel’s discovery

A few of these traits can arise spontaneously through a process called mutation, In the late 1920s it was discovered that exposing plants to x-rays and chemicals could increase the rate of genetic variation, Pure lines are plants that produce sexual offspring that closely resemble their parents. By crossing pure lines, a uniform population of first generation hybrid seed can be produced with predictable characteristics A key problem of hybrid breeding – and conventional biotechnology in general – is that genes are transferred randomly from the parents to the new variety.

A Biotechnology Timeline Era Genetic interventions Traditional About 10 000 years BC Early farmers domesticated crops and animals from available biodiversity, began to select plant materials for propagation and animals for breeding About 3 000 years BC Beer brewing, cheese making and wine fermentation Conventional Late nineteenth century Identification of principles of inheritance by Gregor Mendel, laying the foundation for classical breeding methods 1930s Development of commercial hybrid crops 1940s to 1960s Use of mutagenesis, tissue culture, plant regeneration. Discovery of transformation and transduction. Discovery by Watson and Crick of the structure of DNA. Identification by Barabara McClintock of genes that detach and move (transposons)

Genetic interventions Technology Era Genetic interventions Modern 1970s Advent of gene transfer through recombinant DNA techniques. Use of embryo rescue and protoplast fusion in plant breeding and artificial insemination in animal reproduction 1980s Insulin as first commercial product from gene transfer. Tissue culture for mass propagation in plants and embryo transfer in animal production. Transgenic animal and fish production. 1990s Extensive genetic fingerprinting of a wide range of organisms. First field trials of genetically engineered plant varieties in 1985 followed by the first commercial release in 1994. Genetically engineered vaccines and hormones and cloning of animals, marker-assisted breeding 2000s Bioinformatics, genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, gene silencing (iRNA)

Modern biotechnology Modern biotechnology is the latest stage in the development of plant breeding technology. Crick and Watson’s discovery of DNA’s double helix structure in the 1950s held the key to cracking the genetic code that determines the characteristics of all living organisms. Techniques such as genetic modification enabled plant breeders to transfer solely the gene of interest and allowed them to choose genes from any organism. As a result, desired genes can be transferred more quickly than through the time-consuming variety-crossing process entailed in conventional biotechnology,

Aquaculture Biotechnology Since the 1980s, there has been a burst of biotechnology activity in research and development related to various fish species, in particular those used in aquaculture production. Traits that are being tested in fish species such as carp, trout, salmon and channel catfish include growth rates that are three to eleven times faster with more efficient feed utilisation, increased tolerance to cold water and improved disease resistance. The use of human interferon gene to improve disease resistance in carp, which could reduce the amount of antibiotics needed to keep fish healthy and reduce the costs incurred from losses due to disease. The first genetically engineered fish to be sold commercially is the fluorescent Glofish®, a zebra fish modified to glow red, which came onto the US market in 2004.

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