“Argument Clinic” An argument is a connected series of statements to establish a definite proposition.

In your composition books, respond: Of these four types of arguments, which do you respect the most? Explain. Which do you respect the least? Explain.

What is a logical fallacy? A fallacy is an error of reasoning. These are flawed statements that sound true. They seduce and often persuade us, but that are not logically sound and will lead to faulty conclusions. Logical fallacies are often used to strengthen an argument, but if the reader detects them the argument can backfire, and damage the writer’s credibility.

Formal Fallacies (Errors in deduction) Non Sequitur (p. 58)  It “does not follow” logically  Example: "If you do not buy this type of pet food, you are neglecting your dog." (Premise and conclusion are once again unrelated; this is also an example of an appeal to emotion.)

Informal Fallacies (generally errors of induction)  Non Causa Pro Causa  Weak Analogy Hasty Generalization  Loaded Question  Red Herring Argument from authority Ad Hominem Straw Man Emotional Appeal

Non Causa Pro Causa (p. 65) Correlation does not prove causation Fallacy of mistaken cause Also known as false cause.

Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (p. 66) Concurrence does not prove consequence Two things happening at the same time does not mean they share a cause-and-effect relationship. For instance, suppose that statistics show a positive correlation between gun ownership and violent crime, namely, the higher number of guns owned, the higher the rate of violent crime. It would be tempting to jump to the conclusion that gun ownership causes violent crime, but the causal relationship may be the exact reverse. High rates of violent crime may cause fearful citizens to purchase guns for protection.

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (p. 67) Subsequence does not prove consequence One thing happening after another does not prove a cause and effect relationship. G8gbE G8gbE …just because Sheldon returned home safely doesn’t mean his mother’s prayers necessarily had anything to do with it.

Figure 1. The light from supernova 1987A reached Earth on February 23, The fact that this was one day after the death of the famous artist Andy Warhol clearly does not mean that the two events are related in any way. (Credit: ESA/STScI, HST, NASA.) Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (p. 67)

Weak Analogy (p. 73) Also known as false analogy comparing situations that are different but the comparison does not lead to the conclusion given  Students should look at textbooks during exams because lawyers have briefs  If we can put a man on the moon, we should be able to eliminate poverty  His/Her ideas sound a lot like what we saw in Nazi Germany…

Hasty Generalization (p. 75) Any argument that draws a generalization based on a small or unrepresentative sample size.  75% of the people who responded to our Poll via have some college education, so 75% of all Americans have some college education.  You can't speak French; I can't; =>no one at Hylton can A form of hasty generalization is the stereotype My folks wouldn't let me go to the movies last night, and they wouldn't let me stay up to watch TV either. They never want me to have any fun.

Loaded Question (p. 83) This is not a fallacy of argumentation. Instead this is a fallacy of interrogation. This is in the form of a question. A loaded question contains assumptions.  Ex: Have you stopped beating your wife yet?

Red Herring (p. 90) When the arguer changes the subject and take the listener down a different, unrelated path. Throwing the hounds off the scent Varieties of red herring fallacies  Argument from authority  Ad Hominem  Straw Man  Emotional Appeal

Argument from Authority (p. 91) False Authority Places undue emphasis on the opinion of the speaker or another presumed expert Simply citing an expert does not mean there is a fallacy. This is usually a good quality in an argument. The problem arises out of 2 ways:  when a speaker gives great weight to the opinion of an “expert” who is not really an expert on the subject at hand (i.e. Anything Tom Cruise says about medicine.)  when the speaker treats the opinion of a legitimate expert on the subject as if it were infallible proof. (ie. “Because I said so.”)

Argument from Authority (p. 91) False Authority

Ad Hominem (p. 92) Attacks “against the man” Speaker rejects opponent's argument based ion the quality of the speaker that is not logically related to the credibility of his or her argument.

Ad Hominem

Straw Man (p. 95) The arguer makes her own position appear stronger by misrepresenting her opponent’s position.

Straw Man Mr. Goldberg has argued against prayer in public schools. Obviously Mr. Goldberg advocates atheism. But atheism is what they used to have in Russia. Atheism leads to the suppression of all religions and the replacement of God by an omnipotent state. Is that what we want for this country? I hardly think so. Clearly Mr. Goldberg’s argument is nonsense. Is this really what Goldberg was arguing? (no)

Emotional Appeal (p. 96) A red herring fallacy in which the speaker tries to persuade the listener through emotional manipulation Includes appeal to anger, appeal to fear, appeal to pity, and appeal to ridicule

Emotional Appeal: FEAR  So you’re an animal rights activist. I’d consider changing my views if I were you because most of us here on the prairies are beef farmers and we don’t care too much for your kind.  Silicon Valley: tch?v=l8qB0DOZ9MY Appeals to force/fear The arguer tries to get you to accept their view on the grounds that you will be harmed if you don’t. They use attempt to motivate you from fear rather than logically persuade you.

Emotional Appeal: PITY The arguer tries to get you to accept their view on the grounds that they will be harmed if you don’t.  I really need you to give me an A in this course. I know I didn’t do that well, but an average grade will bring my grade point average down.  Just do as I ask before you give me a heart attack!

Slippery Slope …a person asserts that some event must inevitably follow from another without any rational argument or demonstrable mechanism for the inevitability of the event in question. Each subsequent event after the first is exaggerated and illogical.

Slippery Slope Slippery Slope Example Attempts to outlaw pornography threaten basic civil rights and should be summarily abandoned. If pornography is outlawed, censorship of newspapers and news magazines is only a short step away. After that there will be censorship of textbooks, political speeches, and the content of lectures by university professors. Complete mind control by the central government will be the inevitable result. Slippery Slope Fallacy in Commercial:

Slippery Slope

Begging the Question The arguer supports the conclusion simply by restating it as a premise or by leaving out a key premise.  I know she loves me because she told me so, and you don’t lie to someone you love.  God exists because the Bible says that he does. We all know that the Bible is accurate because it was written by inspired men, men inspired by God to write down his words.  Whatever is less dense than water will float, because such objects won't sink in water.  Murder is morally wrong. This being the case, it follows that abortion is morally wrong.  George W. Bush: Begging the Question:

What begging the question really means 

Bandwagon Idea I is popular. Therefore, I is correct. Advertising is a rich source of Bandwagon arguments, with many products claiming to be "number 1" or "most popular", even though this is irrelevant to the product's merits.

Putting it together When you use a fallacy:  You can be discredited. Your argument will have flawed reasoning. Therefore, your argument will be poorly supported. When you see a fallacy:  Question why it was used. Was it meant to be innocent and fun like in the DirecTV commercial? Or was it meant to be persuasive and logical?  If it was used to persuade you, don’t fall for it. Look at other evidence to determine what you think and believe.

Homework: While reading/watching the news (online or in print), locate an article with any of the fallacies we discussed today in class.