Think Before You Link! Understanding the Effects of Hypertext on Student Learning Outcomes and Reports of Overload

 information overload is a primary complaint of students registered in courses using online learning environments.  Many students believe (and perceive) that information overload exists.  It seems that online students have misconceptions about the amount of information that they actually encounter online.  Students using online environments might not necessarily experience “information overload” per se, perhaps it is “stimulus overload” that students experience.  What should instructors consider when providing course materials? Background and problem:

Stimulus overload (i.e., the presentation of too many environmental stimuli such that one is unable to process them, or the presentation of successive stimuli which are presented too quickly for one to manage) -- Milgram, 1970 Information overload (i.e., the presentation of too much information relative to the time one has to cognitively process the information) -- Paulo Kushnir, 1999

Objectives of our research:  To investigate the problem of information and stimulus overload in online educational settings by looking at the following factors (i)interface design (ii)instructional design (iii)user characteristics... and investigate how these factors might affect online learning.

User Characteristics Instructional Design Interface Design experience relevance of information and Social presence organization of environment learning style personality type task difficulty user control of environment effectiveness of Hypertext

Material to be learned organized within its environment Environment in which material to be learned is embedded; can be busy or “noisy” with lots of stimuli and contain irrelevant information material can be already set in an organized form for learning 2 organizational issues of online learning environments Exp #1 (stimulus-noisy) Exp #2 (hypertext)

(and, thus, decreased quality and quantity of social interactions). Theoretical framework that guided this study: Stimulus Overload Theory Stanley Milgram’s (1970) social psychology theory explaining how we experience and adapt to life in big, busy cities. demographic factors of city life (#’s, density, diversity) overwhelm our perceptual and cognitive processing systems leading to decreased attention and loss of information

(and, thus, decreased quality and quantity of online interactions). Stimulus Overload Theory of Online Learning  demographic factors of online learning (design and organizational factors) overwhelm our perceptual and cognitive processing systems leading to decreased attention and loss of information

too much information Stimulus situation Interference with perceptual and cognitive processing Subjective evaluation “Why do I feel as I do?” “I’m overloaded!!” irrelevant information disorganized information ineffective hypertext ? ? ? ? decrement of online behaviours and learning Behavioural outcome Stimulus Overload Theory of Online Learning

Do you think that material that is hierarchically organized (e.g., well organized hypertext) is easier to learn than material that is presented as a whole (all at once)? A.Yes B. No Question 1

What does the Literature say? Hypertext Positives Effective and constructive tool for learning in online environments (Amadieu et al., 2009; Graf, 2006; Zumbach 2006 ) Accommodate various learning styles (Aedo et al., 2002) Make computer-based educational tools more accessible and, at the same time, more effective (Aedo et al., 2002)

Hypertext Positives… The interactivity of hypertext environments can positively impact students’ motivation to learn (Scheiter & Gerjets, 2007) Encourages self-directed learning by allowing various linkages to be made between units of information and allowing access between the various parts of information (Stanton and Barber, 1992)

…Hypertext Negatives (Cautions) Hypertext can be detrimental to one’s performance in online learning environments (Gerjets et al., 2008; McEneaney, 1998, 2003; Niederhauser & Shapiro, 2003) Motivation of learners can be impaired if students become overwhelmed because of not knowing how to move from one place to another (Stanton and Barber, 1992) –can be mitigated by providing users with overview structures of the hypertext (Brinkerhoff et al., 2001)

…Hypertext Negatives (Cautions) Hypertext done badly (or poor navigation design) could disorient users Poor navigation design can increase cognitive burden (Stanton and Barber 1992; Zumbach, 2006), however….. –Disorientation can be beneficial for experienced users working on complex tasks (Mcnamara & Shapiro, 2005; Shapiro & Niederhauser, 2004)

the current research does not present much empirical evidence for learning being enhanced with hypertext more empirical research needs to be conducted to investigate the effectiveness of this technology (Gerjets et al., 2008; Niederhauser & Shapiro, 2003; Reed et al., 2000; Scheiter & Gerjets, 2007; Shapiro & Niederhauser, 2004; Yang, 2000; Zumbach, 2006). State of current research

Description of our study This study tested the effects of a hypertext environment on learning, comparing hypertext vs no hypertext (scrolling material) conditions hypertext conditions that contained both relevantly and irrelevantly organized information For students in the hypertext condition, links led to text that was “chunked” in small groups of information

Research Questions:  Does the organization and relevance of online information affect learning online?  Does the organization and the relevance of online information affect students’ perceptions of overload?

Research tested predictions that: (i) organization of online environment (hypertext vs. no hypertext) (ii) relevance of information in the environment (relevant links vs. irrelevant links), (iii) user experience, affect: (i) learning outcomes, (ii) perceptions of how much information was presented, (iii) perceptions of overload, (iv) perceptions of having enough time to complete experimental tasks (read, study and learn material).

How do you think a students past experience with online learning environments might affect their learning online? Question 2

Main findings we’d like to share with you today: outcome measures: test scores (learning outcomes) perception of how much info (guess # of pages) report of overload the “no hypertext” group (i.e., scrolling group) outperforms all hypertext groups !! enough time (to finish tasks) students with “high” experience consistently reported that they had enough time to complete tasks… but they overestimate how much info (# of pages)

Mean number of estimated “pages” for each level of “group” by “experience” this group performs the best this group overestimates by a lot!

Why do you think the scrolling (no-hypertext) group performed better than the hypertext group (relevant info only group)? A.Loss of concentration / focus for hypertext group B.Losing track of where student was (in reading, page location, in navigation and clicks) for hypertext group C.Hypertext group feeling overwhelmed D.Others… Question 3 one possible explanation…

Eye Movement / Ocular Motor, Reading and Attention Research in Psychology: during reading your gaze remains fixated on small bits of information for ~ 300 msec then your gaze jumps to the next set of info = saccades 15 to 25% of saccades are in the opposite direction of reading = regressive saccades

Rayner,K. (1998). Eye Movements in Reading and Information Processing: 20 Years of Research. Psychological Bulletin, 124 (3), Implications for practice: jury is still out on hypertext and use of linked learning materials (but there is still not much empirical support that it enhances learning) tempting to conclude and recommend that teachers and course designers use hypertext with caution (if at all), but such conclusions would be premature major challenge in this study was the fact that we could not be certain of what information students were clicking through when they tried to learn the material.

effects of experience on reporting “enough time”: consider the impact that training interventions might have, especially for less experienced students until more evidence based research: keep units of information intact; don’t break up ideas linking documents seems to be a safe bet too many links that send students in many directions could negatively impact learning

track students’ clicks through hypertext Eye movement data + cognitive data might also contribute to a deeper understanding of how students learn in these environments. (CBTC study to start soon) naturalistically based research versus empirically based research to link or not to link? the hypertext debate Implications for research:

“I do not believe that students learn from computers …but rather that students learn from thinking in meaningful ways.” -- David H. Jonassen, Computers in the Classroom: Mindtools for Critical Thinking Thank You!