Ch. 7: Learning

Learning: relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. Learning What is learning?

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov Priest like his father Medical degree 20 years studying digestion Russia’s 1 st Nobel prize in years studying Psychology Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Stimulus-Response Relationship

Pavlov’s Experiments Parts of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned response (UR) Neutral stimulus (NS) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR)

Parts of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US) a stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically – triggers a response. Example: Food in mouth

Parts of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UR) the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus Example: Salivation when food is in mouth

Parts of Classical Conditioning Neutral stimulus (NS) The conditioned stimulus BEFORE conditioning actually takes place. Example: Bell, light, object, touch

Parts of Classical Conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS) an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response. Tone of the bell

Parts of Classical Conditioning Conditioned response (CR) the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). Example: Salivation when tone present

Pavlov’s Experiments

Pavlov’s Experiments Acquisition In CC: the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In OC: the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Pavlov’s Experiments Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in CC when an US does not follow a CS; occurs in OC when a response is no longer reinforced.

Pavlov’s Experiments Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Pavlov’s Experiments Generalization Generalization: the tendency to respond to stimuli that is similar to the CS. “I don’t care if she’s a tape dispenser, I love her!”

Pavlov’s Experiments Discrimination Discrimination in CC, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. Discrimination

Extending Pavlov’s Understanding Biological Predispositions Conditioned taste aversion Subjects become classically conditioned to avoid specific tastes, because the tastes are associated with nausea. John Garcia (1917- ) Body prepares us!

Biopsychosocial Influences on Learning

Pavlov’s Legacy Applications of Classical Conditioning John Watson and Baby Albert

John B. Watson Behaviorism: View that psychology: Behaviorism #1: Should be an objective science #2: Studies behavior without reference to mental processes How we respond to stimuli in our environment with no regard to thoughts, feelings and motives. Most psychologists today agree with #1 but not with #2. Classical Conditioning

Little Albert 11-month-old infant Watson and his assistant, Rosalie Rayner, conditioned Albert to be frightened of white rats Hammer on steel bar Led to questions about experimental ethics

Little Albert – Before Conditioning

Little Albert – During Conditioning

Little Albert – After Conditioning

Little Albert - Generalization

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Research? What is your psychological research issue… What is your US What is your UR What is your NS What is your CS What is your CR

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning: a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcement or diminished if followed by a punishment. Operant behavior: behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect Behaviors with favorable consequences will occur more frequently. Behaviors with unfavorable consequences will occur less frequently. Created puzzle boxes for research on cats

Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

B. F. Skinner College English major/aspiring writer Graduate school for Psychology Modern Behaviorisms most influential and controversial figure Work elaborated on “the law of effect”

Operant Chamber (Skinner Box) Operant Chamber Containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Shaping Behavior Shaping: procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Shaping Discriminative stimulus: a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement). Discriminative stimulus

Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcers Reinforcer: any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. Reinforcer

Types of Reinforcers Positive reinforcement: Positive reinforcement increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Examples?

Types of Reinforcers Negative reinforcement: Negative reinforcement increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (Note: negative reinforcement is NOT punishment). Examples?

Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Primary reinforcer: Primary reinforcer Something that is naturally reinforcing Examples: food, warmth, water, etc. The item is reinforcing in and of itself

Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Conditioned/ Secondary reinforcer: Something that a person has learned to value or finds rewarding because it is paired with a primary reinforcer. Conditioned/ Secondary reinforcer

Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Immediate vs. Delayed reinforcer Immediate reinforcement is more effective than delayed reinforcement Rat does the correct deed and miss it… Ability to delay gratification predicts higher achievement Paycheck at the end of the week…

2 Main Types of Reinforcement Schedules

Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Most useful way to establish a behavior. Extinguish quickly once reinforcement stops. Examples?

Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Partial (intermittent) reinforcement Reinforcing a response only part of the time Initial learning is slower Greater resistance to extinction Examples?

4 Schedules to Partial Reinforcement Fixed-Ratio Variable-Ratio Fixed-Interval Variable-Interval

Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-ratio schedule Reinforces a response only after a specific number of responses. Faster the subject responds, the more reinforcements they will receive. Examples?

Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Variable-ratio schedule Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule is very resistant to extinction. Examples?

Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-interval schedule Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. Examples?

Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Variable-interval schedule reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. Slow, steady responding. Examples?

Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules

Skinner’s Experiments Punishment Punishment : an event that decreases the behavior that it follows. Punishment Positive punishment Administer an aversive stimulus A behavior is followed by an undesirable event Negative punishment Withdraw a desirable stimulus Behavior ends a desirable event

Skinner’s Experiments Punishment

Negatives of using punishment behavior is suppressed not forgotten teaches discrimination can teach fear, anxiety and lower self-esteem Physical punishment may increase aggression

Positives of using punishment Can effectively control certain behaviors. Teaching to NOT do a dangerous behavior Most still suggest reinforcing an incompatible behavior rather than using punishment Skinner’s Experiments Punishment

Extending Skinner’s Understanding Cognition and Operant Conditioning Latent learning: Learning that takes place in absence of an apparent reward Cognitive map Mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. Rats after exploring a maze.

Extending Skinner’s Understanding Cognition and Operant Conditioning Insight learning a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem.

Extending Skinner’s Understanding Cognition and Operant Conditioning Intrinsic Motivation a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Extending Skinner’s Understanding Cognition and Operant Conditioning Extrinsic Motivation a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Skinner’s Legacy Applications of Operant Conditioning Self-Improvement At school In sports At home At work

The Big Bang Theory

Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Similarities between classical and operant conditioning Differences between classical and operant conditioning

Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

Learning by Observation

Introduction Observational learning: Observational learning learning by observing Social learning Modeling: the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. Modeling

Mirrors in the Brain Mirror neurons: frontal lobe neurons that fire when: Mirror neurons performing certain actions when observing another doing something The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

Bandura’s Experiments Albert Bandura Bobo doll We look and we learn

Bandura’s Experiments

Applications of Observational Learning Prosocial vs Antisocial Effects Prosocial effects: positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. Prosocial effects Antisocial effects

The End