Observation Research method

Describe Observation: A non-experimental technique as there is no manipulation of any independent variable. The researcher attempts to record all the behaviour that they observe. It is possible to just write everything down but it is more useful to develop a coding scheme or set categories to be ticked. Observation can be a technique in itself or can be part of an experiment. There are different types of observations.

Different types of Observation Participant & Non Participant Structured & Unstructured Naturalistic & Controlled Covert & Overt

Activity: Clips… Clip One: Describe how the observation was carried out. Focus on the setting and how the data was recorded atch?v=5Cp7_In7f88 Describe 1.Strength: 2.Weakness: Clip Two: Describe how the observation was carried out. Focus on the setting and how the data was recorded atch?v=jWsxfoJEwQQ Describe 1.Strength: 2.Weakness:

I) Naturalistic Observation: Participants behaviour is recorded in their own environment. Example: Sheriff II) Controlled Observation: Participant’s behaviour is recorded in a situation created by the researcher. Example: Milgram, Bandura How the Data Can be Recorded: Participant Observation (can be used in a naturalistic observation): Researcher pretends to be a participant in order to observe them. Types of Observations: Which Observation was which…..

Non-Participant: Overt: Covert: What types of Observation do Bandura, Sheriff and Milgram use? Observations can also be:

A study of taxi driver’s navigation in which a researcher sits beside the driver on specified, complex routes and notes the number of times they frown or scratch their heads. An observer who studies obedience by pretending to be a new army recruit and watching what the other recruits do when ordered to do impossibly difficult tasks. Activity: What type of observation would you use and why?

Structured observations: They tend to be objective and use behavioural categories which involves breaking down the behaviour being studied into components. These categories are sometimes called a behaviour checklist or coding system. Unstructured observations: This is when the researcher records all relevant behaviour but has no system. The behaviour to be studied is largely unpredictable. Measurement Tools:

The researcher needs to use a coding scheme or a behavioural checklist when carrying out a observational study. This is a way of categorising behaviour so that is it easier to record every time your target behaviour occurs. What are the strengths of having a coding scheme? What are the weaknesses of having a coding scheme? Measurement Tools: Coding Schemes

Observers can use event or time sampling to make structured observations. What is event sampling? When you wish to track a change in behaviour. You record every time you see the target behaviour observed. It involves an intense observation of the subject at all times. What are the strengths of carrying out event sampling? What are the weaknesses of carrying out event sampling? Event sampling in structured observations

Imagine a rabbit, you have been observing over the course of a minute does the following: Hops, eats, hops, stands still for a long time, hops, hops, eats stands still for a long time, runs down to the burrow, runs out again, hops, hops, eats, sniffs, eats, then stands still. What would the tally chart look like? Event Sampling BehaviourHopEatStandDown to burrow Out of burrow Sniff Tally

What is time sampling? Time sampling involves observations at set lengths of time at set intervals (eg three hourly observations between , and ), or every 5 minutes for a certain period (eg 1 hour) What are the strengths of carrying out time sampling? Greater representativeness (different groups of people) Ability to ascertain the influence of time of day on behaviour What are the weaknesses of carrying out time sampling? Might miss behaviours Time sampling in structured observations

What are some of the ethical issues that researchers need to be aware of when carrying out observations? Ethical Issues in Observations

Inter-observer reliability 2 observers Should be agreement on data collected IMPROVING: Observations

Homework Complete the worksheet ‘observation notes + worksheet’ to consolidate understanding

ACTIVITY: Evaluate this study:

Type StrengthWeaknesses Controlled All scientific methods – control over variable – internal validity Low ecological validity Natural High ecological validityNo control of variables which limits the internal validity Participant Natural setting so no demand characteristics Unethical May become biased Unstructured Collect rich data - validityObserver bias – may see what they want to/what supports Structured Easy to analyse dataMay exclude behaviours not listed Time Sampling Info about frequency of behaviour Doesn’t involve continual monitoring May miss behaviours that occur outside time frame – may not be rep of situation Event Sampling Able to record all behaviours of interest – whole picture May miss behaviours due to sheer volume Overt Sampling Ethically sound. No deceptionDemand characteristics Covert Sampling No demand characteristicsUnethical – deception EVALUATION: Types of Observations

Observation StrengthWeaknesses What people say is different from what they do. Observer bias (see what they want) Capture spontaneous and unexpected data Can record data about what people think or feel High EcV > naturalistic Can’t establish C&E Good for preliminary research Poorly designed behavioural checklist reduce reliability Rich, qualitative data Quan & Quali Covert observations unethical (deception) Easy to run Can’t control all variables. Little standardisation. Difficult to replicate. Low in DC’s (covert) High DC’s (overt) EVALUATION: Observations

Exam question Look at me! A group of psychologists are interested in conducting an observation study of people’s behaviour as they walk past a shop window. The psychologists want to see if people pay any attention to their own reflection, and is so, what they do. A.Describe an appropriate procedure that could be used in this study. (6)

Exam questions Scenario 2 The owner of several pubs read in a newspaper that men are more likely than women to gamble on fruit machines in entertainment arcades. He was curious to find out if a similar trend existed in his pubs. Therefore he decided to conduct an observation, using the event sampling technique, to find out whether more men or women used the fruit machines in his pubs. 1a. Describe the term ‘event sampling’ (2) 1b. Outline how the owner of the pubs could have gathered appropriate data in this study using the event sampling technique (4) 2a. Formulate an appropriate one-tailed hypothesis for this study (2)

Exam Style Questions: Observation Scenario 3 A practice manager was looking for ways to cut expenditure. Therefore she decided to find out which magazine/journals patients preferred to read while waiting for a consultation with their doctor. The findings would mean she could save the practice money by only purchasing the most popular publications. She bought several copies of 12 difference magazines and placed them on tables around the practice consulting room. She gathered her data using participant observation. 1a. Describe the term ‘participant observation’ in relation to this study (4) 1b. Describe one strength of using participant observation in this study (2) 1c. Describe one weakness of using participant observation in this study (2) 2a. Sketch a possible coding/observation chart for this study (4) 3

Scenario 4 The head teacher of a small sixth- form college wanted to find out what his students did when allowed to spend time in the common room. He therefore designed a coding chart and asked two of his senior students to conduct a covert observation, at convenient times throughout the week prior to half- term. Their findings are shown in the table to the left. 1a. Sketch an appropriate graph to represent the findings of this study (3) 1b. Draw one conclusion from the findings of this observation (2) 2a. Describe one strength of using the observational technique to gather data in this study (2) 2b. Describe one weakness of using the observational technique to gather data in this study (2) 2c. Outline an alternative way data could have been gathered for this study (2) 3. Describe two ethical issues the head teacher had to consider when conducting this investigation (4) 4. Briefly discuss the issue of reliability in relation to this study (5) Behavioural CategoriesNo of students Studying 8 Using mobile phone/iPod, etc. 50 Self-grooming (doing hair/make up) 20 Sleeping 6 Eating/preparing for food or drink 40 Watching TV 60 Playing games on a computer 50 Playing cards/board games 10 4

Content Analysis Research method

Definition Systematic study of use of key words or key ideas in a text. This can be qualitative or quantitative data gathering (excerpts from texts, tallying categories). Content that is analysed is from media sources such a magazines, tv or written recorded info. Aim: identify themes

Complete a content analysis for the following hypothesis: Men and women look for different characteristics in a romantic parter.

Strengths and weaknesses Strengths – Ethical and easy Weaknesses – Researcher bias

Analysis of Data Quantitative – Inferential Statistics Qualitative – Thematic analysis

Chi- Squared Test To conduct a Chi-squared test: The level of measurement must be nominal (categories/frequency data) The Participant Design must be Independent Measures (different groups being studied)

Calculate the Chi-Squared Value

Conclusion State the conclusion (delete as appropriate) As the observed value ____________ is less than/more than the critical value __________ we must accept/ reject the null hypothesis (at p≤0.05) and therefore we conclude that there is a difference/ no difference between men and women in terms of how many driving tests it takes to pass.