High School Literature 2.4 William Shakespeare and the writing of Roman History

Writing Roman History Romans had a deep devotion to their past. Many of their proud traditions are evident in their political and legal institutions, their religion, and in their literature. The Roman orator and statesman Marcus Tullius Cecero was not an historian but thought history should be useful to record the precedents in law, military affairs, and provide models of moral conduct from Rome’s past. As such, the heroic legends of Rome’s past have been transformed from oral traditions into epic poems, plays, and stories. The responsibility of a historian was to do more than tell pleasant stories. They should make moral judgments. Writers of history did not merely ask what occurred or how it happened, but more importantly, why certain events came about.

Roman Historiography: Romans regarded the practice of writing history as an act of literary composition rather than research. Greek historians saw research as essential but Roman historians instead relied on a single source of information and recast or rewrote the material or speeches into their own prose. This method of impressing the historian putting his conception of the historic event into fact was so effective it radically changed the primary source of information. This literary style caused many discrepancies in dates and places along with the interpretation of what had happened. Most Roman historians wished to avoid “untruths” but a persuasive narrative was more important to telling a story and often filled the gap between the actual event and the highly political world of the Roman elite. The Roman historian Quintilian described history as “a poem in prose.” The Roman philosopher, Cicero defined Quintilian as an “embellisher of events.”

Interpreting history… The writing of Roman history began with Quintas Fabius Pictor. He wrote about the founding of the city of Rome and defended the Roman state and its actions by using propaganda to embellish his accounts. Cato the Elder is credited as the first historian to write in Latin. His work, the Origines, was written to teach Romans what it means to be Roman. Cato the Elder’s work is filled with legends illustrating Roman virtues and how Italian cities, along with Romans, were superior to the Greeks. Other historians wrote in what is known as the Annalistic, or year-by-year style, followed by the Monographic tradition that we are familiar with today. Monographs are single topic histories. Biographies emerged from the monographic tradition. Factionalized history is another form of writing that was used by Roman historians. This was especially evident in times of political unrest or social turmoil. Historians re-wrote history to suit their particular views of the age. This was especially evident in 70 BC when social wars and military alliances were being formed.

The Center of Public and Political Life Roman history has been centered on the public and political life of the Roman people, whether in the Senate, the Forum or on military campaigns. This focus led Roman historians to create themes of universal importance. We can look back at the founding and growth of Rome to a lost golden age and the decline of the Roman Republic. Rome’s empire grew larger while her moral values and political institutions eroded from within. Conquest, wealth, and power eroded Rome from within and corrupted the free Roman people leaving them the subjects of a new monarchy. Most important to remember, the written history of Rome grew out of the political life of the city. Its speeches were political acts and its language was an analysis of society. From antiquity to the present day it has been read for its examples of heroic conduct.

Speeches were political acts. Moral histories became the voice of future historians. The discussion of freedom and tyranny, corruption of individuals or civic powers, and the decline of political and social institutions have remained. The history of Rome continues to be read for its examples of heroic conduct and the dream of keeping liberty alive. Poetry, drama, and paintings commemorate the past. The Roman historian Tacitius believed the function of Roman historiography was to affect the future. Cicero said it best, “the witness of the past, the light of truth, the survival of memory, the teacher of life, the message of antiquity.” (On Oratory )

William Shakespeare and the story of Rome In 1599 William Shakespeare wrote about Roman history portraying the assassination of a great Roman dictator and the defeat of the conspirators at the Battle of Philippi. The Tragedy of Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare, portrays the 44 BC conspiracy against the Roman dictator Julius Caesar, his assassination and the defeat of the conspirators at the Battle of Philippi, the final battle in the Wars of the Second Triumvirate between the forces of Mark Antony and Octavian. Shakespeare based his play on true events from Roman history. It is believed the play reflects the general anxiety of England over the refusal of an elderly Queen Elizabeth to name a successor. The fear of a civil war similar breaking out after her death was similar to that of Rome and the death of Julius Caesar. The play was likely one of Shakespeare's first to be performed at the Globe Theatre.

Who was Julius Caesar? Julius Caesar was a Roman general, a statesman, and a Consul along with being an author of Latin prose. Caesar wrote accounts of both the Gallic and Civil Wars in the form of a memoir or diary. Caesar used this opportunity to present his own version of the facts. He played a critical role in several events that influenced the end of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. In 60 BC, Caesar formed a political alliance that would dominate Roman politics for several years. Caesar amassed great power and wealth by using certain tactics to oppose the conservative ruling class within the Roman Senate. Cato the Younger, and Cicero were among the conservatives in the Senate who opposed Caesar who eventually extended Rome’s territory to the English Channel and the Rhine River where he built the first bridge across the Rhine and conducted the first invasion of Britain.

Caesar is murdered… In the play, Julius Ceasar was killed by a mutiny of Roman senators fearing that Caesar intended to turn republican Rome into a monarchy under his own rule. Caesar's assassination is one of the most famous scenes of the play, occurring in Act 3. After ignoring the soothsayer as well as his wife's own premonitions, Caesar comes to the Senate. The conspirators create a superficial motive for the assassination by means of a petition brought by Metellus Cimber, pleading on behalf of his banished brother. As Caesar, predictably, rejects the petition, Casca grazes Caesar in the back of his neck, and the others follow in stabbing him; Brutus is last. At this point, Caesar utters the famous line "Et tu, Bruté? meaning "And you, Brutus?"

Brutus and Marc Antony speak The conspirators make clear that they committed this act for Rome, not for their own purposes and do not attempt to flee the scene. After Caesar's death, Brutus delivers an oration defending his actions, and for the moment, the crowd is on his side. However, Mark Antony, with a subtle and eloquent speech over Caesar's corpse—beginning with the much-quoted "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.” With his famous soliloquy he turns public opinion against the assassins by manipulating the emotions of the common people. In contrast to the rational tone of Brutus's speech he reminds them of the good Caesar had done for Rome, his sympathy with the poor, and his refusal of the crown questioning Brutus' claim of Caesar's ambition. Antony shows Caesar's bloody, lifeless body to the crowd to have them shed tears and gain sympathy for their fallen hero; and he reads Caesar's will, in which every Roman citizen would receive 75 drachmas. Antony rouses the mob to drive the conspirators from Rome.

Brutus Be patient till the last. Romans, countrymen, and lovers! Hear me for my cause, and be silent that you may hear. Believe me for mine honor, and have respect to mine honor that you may believe. Censure me in your wisdom, and awake your senses that you may the better judge. If there be any in this assembly, any dear friend of Caesar’s, to him I say that Brutus' love to Caesar was no less than his. If then that friend demand why Brutus rose against Caesar, this is my answer: not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. Had you rather Caesar were living and die all slaves, than that Caesar were dead, to live all free men? As Caesar loved me, I weep for him. As he was fortunate, I rejoice at it. As he was valiant, I honor him. But, as he was ambitious, I slew him. There is tears for his love, joy for his fortune, honor for his valor, and death for his ambition. Who is here so base that would be a bondman? If any, speak—for him have I offended. Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? If any, speak— for him have I offended. Who is here so vile that will not love his country? If any, speak—for him have I offended. I pause for a reply. Then none have I offended. I have done no more to Caesar than you shall do to Brutus.

Marc Antony Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. The evil that men do lives after them; The good is oft interred with their bones; So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus Hath told you Caesar was ambitious: If it were so, it was a grievous fault, And grievously hath Caesar answer'd it. Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest-- For Brutus is an honourable man; So are they all, all honourable men-- Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral. He was my friend, faithful and just to me: But Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honourable man. He hath brought many captives home to Rome Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill: Did this in Caesar seem ambitious? When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept: Ambition should be made of sterner stuff: Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honourable man. You all did see that on the Luperca. I thrice presented him a kingly crown, Which he did thrice refuse: was this ambition? Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And, sure, he is an honourable man. I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, But here I am to speak what I do know. You all did love him once, not without cause: What cause withholds you then, to mourn for him? O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts, And men have lost their reason. Bear with me; My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, And I must pause till it come back to me.

What do Brutus’ and Antony’s speeches tell us about themselves? A soliloquy is a speech made by a person who is alone on stage, or who is alone speaking to himself. By speaking aloud, the person reveals his thoughts and character. A monologue is a speech given by a single person to an audience with the purpose of entertaining, instructing, or teaching.