Chapter 13 Scrutinizing Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Plan Basic decision is use of:  Existing data  Records (e.g., patient charts)  Historical data  Existing data set (secondary analysis)  New data, collected specifically for research purposes

Examples of Records, Documents, and Available Data  Hospital records (e.g., nurses’ shift reports)  School records (e.g., student absenteeism)  Corporate records (e.g., health insurance choices)  Letters, diaries, minutes of meetings, etc.  Photographs

Major Types of Data Collection Methods  Self-reports  Observation  Biophysiologic measures

Dimensions of Data Collection Approaches  Structure  Quantifiability  Researcher obtrusiveness  Objectivity

Types of Qualitative Self- Reports  Unstructured interviews  Conversational, totally flexible  Use of grand tour questions  Semistructured interviews  Use of a topic guide

Types of Qualitative Self- Reports (cont’d)  Focus group interviews  Interviews in small groups (5-10 people)  Led by a moderator  Life histories  Narrative self-descriptions of life experiences  Often a chronology

Types of Qualitative Self- Reports (cont’d)  Think-aloud method  Means of collecting data about cognitive processes as they unfold (e.g., clinical decision-making)  Diaries and journals

Types of Qualitative Self- Reports (cont’d)  Critical incidents interviews  Focus on specific incidents that had a discernible impact on some outcome

Structured Self Reports Data are collected with a formal instrument  Interview schedule  Questions are pre-specified but asked orally  Either face-to-face or by telephone  Questionnaire  Questions pre-specified in written form, to be self-administered by respondents

Types of Questions in a Structured Instrument  Open-ended questions  e.g., Why did you decide to stop taking hormone replacement drugs?  Closed-ended (fixed alternative) questions  e.g., Have you ever taken hormone replacement drugs? (yes/no)

Specific Types of Closed-Ended Questions  Dichotomous questions  Multiple-choice questions  Cafeteria questions  Rank-order questions  Forced-choice questions  Rating questions

Advantages of Questionnaires (Compared With Interviews)  Lower costs  Possibility of anonymity  Lack of interviewer bias

Advantages of Interviews (Compared with Questionnaires)  Higher response rates  Appropriate for more diverse audiences  Opportunities to clarify questions or to determine comprehension  Opportunity to collect supplementary data through observation

Composite Psychosocial Scales Scales—used to make fine quantitative discriminations among people with different attitudes, perceptions, needs  Likert scales (summated rating scales)  Semantic differential scales

Likert (Summated Rating) Scales  Consist of several declarative statements (items) expressing viewpoints  Responses are on an agree/disagree continuum (usually 5 or 7 response options)  Responses to items are summed to compute a total scale score

Semantic Differential Scales Require ratings of various conceptsRequire ratings of various concepts Rating scales involve bipolar adjective pairs, with 7-point ratingsRating scales involve bipolar adjective pairs, with 7-point ratings Ratings for each dimension are summed to compute a total score for each conceptRatings for each dimension are summed to compute a total score for each concept

Figure 13.1 Example of a Semantic Differential

Visual Analog Scales Used to measure subjective experiences (e.g., pain, nausea)Used to measure subjective experiences (e.g., pain, nausea) Measurements are on a straight line measuring 100 mmMeasurements are on a straight line measuring 100 mm End points labeled as extreme limits of sensationEnd points labeled as extreme limits of sensation

Figure 13-2 Example of a Visual Analog Scale

Response Biases and Response Sets  Social desirability response set bias  Extreme response set  Acquiescence response set (yea- sayers)  Nay-sayers response set

Q-Sorts  Participants sort a deck of cards into piles according to specific criteria  Cards contain statements to be sorted on bipolar continuum (e.g., most like me/least like me)  Usually 9 or 11 piles  Usually 60 to 100 cards

Vignettes  Brief descriptions of situations to which respondents are asked to react  Descriptions are usually written “stories”  Respondents can be asked open-ended or closed-ended questions about their reactions  Aspects of the vignettes can be experimentally manipulated

Phenomena Amenable to Research Observation  Activities and behavior  Characteristics and conditions of individuals  Skill attainment and performance  Verbal and nonverbal communication  Environmental characteristics

Observation in Qualitative and Quantitative Studies  Qualitative studies: Unstructured observation in naturalistic settings  Includes Participant observation  Quantitative studies: Structured observation of pre-specified behaviors

The Observer–Participant Role in Participant Observation Leininger’s Four-Phase Sequence:  Primarily observation  Primarily observation with some participation  Primarily participation with some observation  Reflective observation

Methods of Recording Unstructured Observations  Logs (field diaries)  Field notes  Descriptive (observational) notes  Reflective notes:  Methodologic notes  Theoretical notes (or analytical notes)  Personal notes

Structured Observations Category systems  Checklists  Exhaustive system: All behaviors of a specific type recorded; each behavior assigned to one mutually exclusive category  Nonexhaustive system: Specific behaviors, but not all behaviors, recorded

Observational Rating Scales  Ratings are on a descriptive continuum, typically bipolar  Ratings can occur:  at specific intervals  upon the occurrence of certain events  after an observational session (global ratings)

Sampling for Structured Observations  Time-sampling—sampling of time intervals for observation, for example:  Random sampling of intervals of a given length  Systematic sampling of intervals of a given length  All intervals of a given length  Event sampling—observation of integral events

Biophysiologic Measures In vivo measurements Performed directly within or on living organisms (e.g., blood pressure measures) In vitro measurements Performed outside the organism’s body (e.g., urinalysis)