Chapter 6 LEARNING

Learning Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes. Behavioral Learning vs. Cognitive Learning

Simple Forms of Learning Habituation – Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus. Mere exposure effect – Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed.

Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response. What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain?

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING The process by which an organism learns a new association between two paired stimuli. Neutral stimulus – any stimulus that produces no response. »IVAN PAVLOV

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS)

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response.

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning.

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response.

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

Classical Conditioning Acquisition – the process by which a conditioned response is established or strengthened. Extinction – the weakening of a CR in the absence of an UCS.

Classical Conditioning Spontaneous Recovery – the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay.

Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery (1) Acquisition (CS + UCS) (3) Spontaneous Recovery (CS alone) Rest period (2) Extinction (CS alone) (Time) Trials Strength of the CR (Weak) (Strong)

Classical Conditioning Generalization – the extension of a CR from the training stimulus to similar stimuli. Discrimination – making different responses to different stimuli that have been followed by different outcomes.

Classical Conditioning Taste-aversion learning – a biological tendency in which an organism learns, after a single experience, to avoid a food, if eating is followed by illness.

How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishments, influence the chance that our behavior will occur again.

Operant Conditioning The probability of a response is changed by its consequences. Law of Effect – –Responses that produce desirable results will be learned.

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement: The process in which a behavior is strengthened, and thus, more likely to happen again. Punishment The process in which a behavior is weakened, and thus, less likely to happen again.

Operant Conditioning + Positive Reinforcement Making a behavior stronger by following the behavior with a pleasant stimulus. Example: a rat presses a lever and receives food. - Negative Reinforcement Making a behavior stronger by taking away a negative stimulus. Example: a rat presses a lever and turns off the electric shock.

PUNISHMENT + Positive punishment –The application of an aversive stimulus after a response. Example: You touch a hot plate; the painful consequence reduces the likelihood of you repeating that behavior. - Negative punishment (omission training) -Results from the removal of a reinforcer. Example: Your parents take away your cell phone because you are not doing well in school.

The Use and Abuse of Punishment Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed. Punishment –Often triggers aggression –May inhibit learning new and better responses (learned helplessness) –Is often applied unequally When does punishment work?

Primary vs Secondary Reinforcers Primary –Innate (unlearned) Secondary –Conditioned (learned)

Shaping A technique in which a new behavior is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired response.

Token Economy Conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with tokens, which can be accumulated and exchanged for valued rewards.

Premack Principle More preferred activities can be used to reinforce less preferred activities. "You have to finish your VEGETABLES (Low Frequency) before you can eat any ICECREAM (High Frequency)."

Behavior Modification Replaces undesirable behaviors with more desirable ones through positive or negative reinforcement. *Positive reinforcement seems to be the most effective technique.

Contingencies of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced. Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced. –called intermittent reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses. Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval. Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI)

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses. e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product are completed

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial. e.g. slot machine pay- offs

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses. e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial. e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning –involves the association of two stimuli (UCS + CS) before the response or behavior. Operant Conditioning –involves a reinforcing (reward) or punishing stimulus after a response or behavior.

How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone.

Cognitive Psychology Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions. - Kohler Cognitive map – A mental representation of physical space. - Tolman

Observational Learning Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior. Bandura –BoBo doll experiment

Violence in the Media Observing violence is associated with violent behavior!

Brain Mechanisms and Learning Long-term potentiation Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells; believed to be the neural basis of learning.

In Summary… Behavioral Learning –Focuses on observable events. –Learning as associations among stimuli and responses. –Classical and operant conditioning. Big Names: Pavlov Thorndike Skinner Watson Cognitive Learning –Makes inferences about mental processes that are not directly observable. –Learning as information processing. –Learning involves insight and cognitive maps. Big Names: Kohler Tolman Bandura