Introduction to Psychology Motivation and Emotion

Motivation Motivation refers to the moving force that energizes behavior –Direction or goal of motives –Strength of motives Motives reflect –Biological needs –Psychosocial needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Hypothalamic Regulation of Eating Hypothalamus receives information regarding nutrient levels in body –Lateral region Stimulation induces eating Lesions of the lateral region produce starvation –Ventromedial region Lesions induce overeating Stimulation inhibits eating

Sexual Motivation Hormones: - Organizational effects: prenatal exposure to androgens alters the neural circuits in brain and spinal cord, Adult behavior of androgenized subject is masculine –In the absence of androgens, “Nature’s impulse is to create a female…” - Activational effects: alteration of adult levels of hormones can alter the intensity of a behavior that is modulated by that hormone Pheromones Environmental cues

Evolutionary Analysis of Human Sexual Behavior Parental investment Patterns of sexual activity Differences in mate preferences jealousy

Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation is the direction of attraction for a sexual partner –Homosexuality: attraction for a person of the same-sex Twin studies document a biological basis for homosexuality Hormonal responses differ between homosexual and heterosexual men

Fig – Homosexuality and heterosexuality as endpoints on a continuum. Sex researchers view heterosexuality and homosexuality as falling on a continuum rather than make an all-or-none distinction. Kinsey and his associates (1948, 1953) created this seven-point scale (from 0 to 6) to describe people’s sexual orientation. They used the term ambisexual to describe those who fall in the middle of the scale, but such people are commonly called bisexual today. Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Limited

Affiliation Motives The need to associate with others and maintain social bonds. Companionship, friendship, and love Evolutionary bases Safety, grooming, survival Rejection, Loss of intimate, Loneliness (anxiety, jealousy, and depression)

Achievement Motives Need for Achievement: refers to the need to do well, to succeed, and to avoid failure –Persons who have a high level of need for achievement tend to Choose moderately difficult tasks Enjoy being challenged Avoid failure Work more persistently Enjoy success

Emotion Emotions reflect a “stirred up’ state Emotions have valence: positive or negative Emotions are thought to have 3 components: –Physiological arousal –Subjective experience –Behavioral expression

Taxonomy of Emotions How many basic emotional states? –Between 5 and 9 basic states: The common 5 include anger, fear, happiness, sadness, and disgust Additional emotional states include surprise, contempt, shame, guilt, joy, and trust Emotional valence may be related to activity in the nervous system: –Positive: activity of dopamine systems –Negative: activity of norepinephrine systems

Neuropsychology of Emotion Dual processing of emotions: –Activation of the amygdala produces visceral responses –Cortical activation allows for use of memory in understanding emotional stimuli –Limbic system (Figure adapted from LeDoux, 1995)

Cognitive Perspectives on Emotion Schachter and Singer (1962): cognitive judgements are a critical part of emotional experience: –Subjects are aroused by an injection of adrenaline and then exposed to anger or happiness cues –The emotional cues played a prominent role in emotional experience

Fig – Theories of emotion. Three influential theories of emotion are contrasted with one another and with the commonsense view. The James-Lange theory was the first to suggest that feelings of arousal cause emotion, rather than vice versa. Schachter built on this idea by adding a second factor —interpretation (appraisal and labeling) of arousal. Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Limited

Happiness as an Emotion Happiness is an emotional state characterized by a positive valence Research shows that happiness is –related to cultural values (highest in individualistic cultures, lowest in collectivist cultures) –Highly correlated with number of uninterrupted years of democracy in a country Happiness is NOT related to: –Gender –Age –Wealth

Facial Expression of Emotion There is an evolutionary link between the experience of emotion and facial expression of emotion: –Facial expressions serve to inform others of our emotional state Different facial expressions are associated with different emotions –Ekman’s research Facial expression can alter emotional experience –Engaging in different facial expressions can alter heart rate and skin temperature