WRITING UP DOCTORAL RESEARCH: A GUIDE TO FEATURES OF TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC ENGLISH Peter A Aborisade The Federal University of Technology Akure

Locus a research question propose some hypothesis collect quantitative data treat data using statistical tests Experimental Research Study (broadly conceived – controlled, correlational, survey, modelling etc) to explain the objectives, methods, results of an investigation carried out by the researcher Study designed around :

Conventional Structure AbstractIntroductionMethodResultsDiscussion

Focus Fundamentals of: Convention (Moves) Features of language and style

Introduction Overview/Background Statement of the problem Purpose of study Significance of study Research hypothesis Scope/Limitations of study Definition of terms

Literature Review Brief introduction Sub-titles/headings for each for aspects to review Describe context Justify their inclusion Evaluate & support evaluation Identify a gap in knowledge Explain how to fill gap

Research Methods Introduction Design of study/study population Sampling technique/method of data selection Method of data collection

Research Results Reference to Tables, Figures, Charts etc; Presentation of consistent/non- consistent results Comments on the results

Discussion Confirms or refutes the attainment of main research objective States a specific outcome Interprets the outcome States significance of outcome Contrasts previous and present outcomes Indicates limitations of outcome

LANGUAGE & STYLE Writing up research is a skill that can be learned by anyone who is conscientious

Language Skills Matter Of the four writing skills employed for research – Exposition, Narration, Description and Argumentation, the main is:

Exposition 3 methods of Exposition: Exemplification Definition Classification Informing Clarifying Explaining Instructing

Exemplification achieved mainly by use of signal words/phrases, e.g. particularly for example for instance Especially

Definition to render accessible technical terms, ideas and concepts for the audience: Definition by use of synonym: The oil sump, that is, the oil reservoir is located …. Definition by use or quality: A thermometer is used for … Definition by category: Aluminium is a metal, which is … Definition by example: Chairs, tables, sofas, … are examples of furniture

Classification Anaethetics can be classified into general and local Anaethetics can be divided into the following groups … There are two types of anaethetics … The two types of anaesthetics are … General and local anaesthetics are two categories of … to impose order on the description of groups of similar or related objects, substances, concepts and ideas

Literature Review: Style and Language sub-skills Citation Reference to previous research reports within the text a) reference to personal names b) reference to dates of publication c) use of appropriate verbs and tense forms Kyle (1989) reported that the use of … OR There has been reported a phenomenal increase in incidence of … (Kyle, 1980) Paraphrasing expressing the writer’s views in your own words as much as possible without losing the meaning intended or introducing unintended nuances Citation sub-skills Paraphrasing sub- skills Quotation sub-skills

Verb and Tense forms Other reporting verbs include: Argue, Claim, Conclude, Confirm, Demonstrate, Discuss, Estimate, Hypothesise, Observe, Obtain, Propose, State, Stress, Study, Postulate, etc. Most common verbs, almost always in the past tense, used to report other writers’ reports are: FIND: Jones (1977) found that … SHOW:Agwu (2011) has shown that … REPORT:It has been reported (Eckhard, 2010) that … SUGGEST:Adebajo (2012) suggested that …

General Forms of Scientific Language Types 1.Use of Complex Phrases 2.Use of complex noun clusters (modifying nouns by means of other nouns) 3. Use of Nominalisations (turning verbs into nouns) 4. Use of passives & Impersonal forms (using forms of third person, past tense and non-active) Examples a)population-based case-control study b)The experimentally determined structural parameters a)An informal notification system was used to … b)The dangers of nation-wide population explosion are imminent Instead of: The probe measured the internal diameter Scientists say: Measurement of the internal diameter was performed by the probe a)The sample was tested by the analyser (passive) b)It has been shown that paraquat toxicity in rats is enhanced by exposure to 40% oxygen atmosphere (3 rd person & passive)

Researching may be fun … Writing up IS PAIN …! 24/3/2016 Joint International Conference FUTA