Theories of Society and Social Change Ch. 4 Society Theories of Society and Social Change

What is Society? A group of people who interact in a defined geographical area and share a similar culture Similarities can be found across subcultures and ethnic groups especially in multicultural societies

Theories of Society Gerhard and Jean Lenski Karl Marx Max Weber Social change and technology Karl Marx Society changes through conflict Max Weber The power of ideas shapes and changes society Emile Durkheim How traditional and modern societies are held together

Gerhard and Jean Lenski’s Theory Sociocultural evolution: The changes that occur as a society gains new technology Societies range from simple to the technologically complex

The Lenski’s (cont.) Societies simple in technology tend to remain small and change slowly More technologically complex societies support bigger populations, more affluence, and constant change

Hunter/Gatherer Societies Defined by the use of simple tools to hunt animals and gather vegetation A few societies persist today in Africa and Malaysia They depend on the family and on moving around (nomadic)

Hunter/Gatherer Societies The sexes regarded as having the same economic importance Few formal leaders, social equality Often ravaged by forces of nature For example, the Sami Laplanders in northern Finland Reindeer herders who often experience hardship and famine.

Horticultural and Pastoral Societies Horticulture: use of hand tools to raise crops; emerged 10-12 000 years ago Pastoralism: the domestication of animals Today found throughout South America, Africa, and Asia

Horticultural and Pastoral Societies Could support a much larger population Leads to a division of labour and inequality Rudimentary government and military See God as directly involved in well-being of the world

Agrarian Societies Agriculture: large-scale cultivation using plows attached to animals or more powerful energy sources Occurred in Middle East 5000 years ago Larger population and food surpluses Greater specialization and inequality Men become dominant Societies expanded into empires (the Roman empire an example)

Industrial Societies Industrialism: production of goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery Huge populations and increased communication Anonymity and cultural diversity Trend away from traditional families and towards schooling and various rights (reduced inequality)

Post-Industrial Societies Post-industrialism: technology that supports an information-based economy Great change in occupational structure to service jobs Information replaces objects as the centre of economy Worldwide flow of information affects everyone on the globe

The Limits of Technology Poverty remains the plight of millions of people Individual opportunities at the cost of community Modern warfare could devastate the planet The physical environment is threatened by pursuit of material prosperity

Karl Marx: Society and Conflict Watch: Karl Marx (School of Life, 2014) Marx’s key concept: Class conflict: the struggle between segments of society over valued resources In industrial societies, two social classes: Capitalists own factories and productive enterprises in pursuit of profits Proletarians provide labour for wages

Society and Production To maximize profits, capitalists (bourgeoisie) exploit proletariat Social institutions: major spheres of social life, or societal subsystems, organized to meet basic human needs The economic subsystem of production determines all other social institutions

Society and Production The economy (infrastructure) dominates all major institutions and defines society Family, politics, religion (superstructure) control the proletariat creates “ideology” and False consciousness: explanations of social problems in individual’s shortcomings, not society’s flaws

Conflict and History Over history, new productive forces undermined old orders and new social classes gained ascendance Initial human societies lived in primitive communism; shared chores & food In the “ancient world” warfare was frequent and produced masters & slaves The feudal world saw lords and serfs The productive forces of industry created the bourgeoisie and the workers

Capitalism and Class Conflict Capitalists and proletarians are engaged in class conflict today Class conflict: antagonism between entire classes over the distribution of wealth and power in society Class consciousness: the recognition by workers of their unity in opposition to capitalists and to capitalism itself Revolution would occur when proletariat became a “class for itself”

Capitalism and Alienation Alienation: The experience of isolation and misery resulting from powerlessness Capitalists alienate workers from: The act of working The product of work Other workers Human potential As people develop technology to gain power over the world, the capitalist economy gains more control over people

Revolution The only way out of capitalism is to remake society Socialism is a system of production that could provide for the social needs of all Marx believed that the working majority would realize they held the key to a better future The change would be revolutionary and perhaps even violent Marx believed a socialist society would end class conflict Ideal = communism

Historical Materialism: Marx and Engels’ Stages of History Primitive Communism: hunter/gatherer societies: no extra wealth and no private property, social classes, class struggles, or even the need for government; Slave societies with a rich ruling class opposed by an oppressed underclass of slaves; Feudalism with a noble class of landowning lords opposed by an oppressed class of serfs; Capitalism with a rich class of factory owners (bourgeoisie) opposed by an oppressed class of factory workers (the proletariat); Socialism run by the workers with no private property, and thus no social classes, or class conflicts; Communism: the ideal society, stateless and classless

Marx’s Methodology Detailed and meticulous historical research Also based ideas on a survey of more than 20,000 workers, performed together with Friedrich Engels Interviewed workers and compiled the data Became the basis for 3 volume work “Das Kapital” written together with Engels and for his famous “Communist Manifesto”

CONFLICT AND ANALYSIS: MAX WEBER Key Contributions of M. Weber Theory of Society: change through ideas Most famous for: “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism” 3 Types of Political Authority: traditional, charismatic and rational/legal (bureaucracy); Social Stratification: class, status, party 3-fold Methodology: comparative method, verstehen, ideal types

Max Weber: The Rationalization of Society Rationalization: historical change from tradition to rationality as the main type of human thought Societies differ not in terms of how people produce things but in how people think about the world He was an “idealist” (Marx was a “materialist”) Used Ideal type to analyze: an abstract statement of the essential characteristics of any social phenomenon

Weber’s Theory of Society Main argument: human action increasingly formally rational over the course of human history. Human action = individual meaningful, purposive behaviour Formal rationality = careful, planned and calculated matching of means to ends

Theory of Society (cont.) Formally rational action: to identify and use means that will likely bring a desired end a dominant feature of modern societies. Theory of Society: the study of individuals’ meaningful, purposive actions individuals and their ideas, values and beliefs are the driving force of social change

Key Contributions of Max Weber The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (BBC, 2015) Examines why capitalism developed in North Europe and North America Argues that Protestant religion is conducive to capitalist development Protestantism provides preconditions for rational economic behaviour

Key Contributions (cont.) The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism: Protestant faith based on puritan asceticism (self-denial, self-control for salvation) encourages hard work, frugality and individual responsibility; Money-making as part of religious calling; History of religion has unintentional and paradoxical effects: Protestant ethic promotes rational conduct but undermines religious viewpoint in modern society based on science and technology.

Key Contributions (cont.) Theory of Political Economy: Agreed with Marx that economic activity is central in modern industrialized society but emphasizes politics as most important factor; Distinguished between power and authority: Power = ability to impose one’s will including the use of coercion to achieve desired ends Authority = legitimate use of power to achieve desired ends with others’ consent Identified 3 types of authority in human societies: traditional, charismatic, rational/legal

Charismatic Authority Based on a great figure or personality e.g. prophet, warrior or political leader with extraordinary qualities and leadership skills; Must be proven through successful victories and prosperity to the community; Elitist rule based on direct authority of an individual vs. representation or participation of the masses.

Traditional Authority Based on a dominant personality e.g. monarch or patriarch; Legitimacy based on established rights and obligations within a social order e.g. monarchy, feudal system, household, etc. Leadership based on custom, tradition and personal loyalty.

Rational/legal Authority Based on impersonal rules according to a means/ends calculation, and not on rulers; Dominant in modern industrialized society with formal rationality as guide to actions; Bureaucracy as main force, creating universal rules and standard procedures; Leaders as functional superiors or bureaucratic officials, office holders and managers.

Rational/legal Authority (cont.) Characteristic of mass democracy but real power is concentrated in few politician-bureaucrats; Bureaucracy as a form of domination, regulating different parts of society, and making masses dependent; Pessimistic view: “iron cage” = bureaucratization provides social cohesion but undermines individual freedom; Charismatic individuals as key to social change

Weber and Social Stratification in Society 3 Dimensions of Social stratification: class, status, party: Class = economic position Status = community identification according to social honour and prestige; Party = group organization to either change or maintain social order

Weber’ Methodology Comparative historical method, verstehen, ideal types Comparative historical method: Contextualize specific institutions or social actions and compare with same features in other societies; b) Identify patterns without generalizing as laws of human behaviour

Methodology (cont.) Verstehen = understanding To understand how people give meaning to their actions e.g. qualitative research techniques: participant/observation, interviewing, focus groups, etc. To combine face to face interactions with reading scholarly texts; Ideal types: Refer to theoretical models/templates to guide understanding of key features of a phenomenon e.g. theoretical concepts: anomie, alienation, etc.

Rational Social Organization Seven characteristics of today’s social life: Distinctive social institutions Large-scale organization Specialized tasks Personal discipline Awareness of time Technical competence Impersonality Bureaucracy would stifle the human spirit

Emile Durkheim: Society and Function “To love society is to love something beyond us and something in ourselves” Durkheim, 1924 Structure: There are social facts that have objective reality beyond individuals Functions: Help society operate Personality: We internalize social facts Anomie: When society provides little moral guidance to individuals

Durkheim and Social Change Durkheim built on the ideas of F. Toennies Ferdinand Toennies interpreted modernization of society as a loss of community, or the decline of Gemeinschaft and the rise of Gesellschaft. Durkheim stressed that modernization involved an increased division of labour (specialized economic activity, and a shift from mechanical to organic solidarity).

Evolving Societies: The Division of Labour Mechanical solidarity: social bonds, based on common sentiments and shared moral values, strong among members of preindustrial societies Organic solidarity: social bonds, based on specialization and interdependence, that are strong among members of industrial societies Division of Labour: specialized economic activity Low in mechanical and high in organic Modern society rests less on moral consensus and more on functional interdependence

Durkheim’s Methodology Scientific sociology through the systematic study of “social facts” Empiricism (through the senses) Was a positivist

What Holds Societies Together? Lenski: A shared culture and patterns that vary by technology Karl Marx: Elites force an uneasy peace; true unity comes from cooperative production Max Weber: Rational, large-scale organizations connect lives Emile Durkheim: Specialized division of labour creates organic solidarity

How Have Societies Changed? Lenski: Changing technology; modern society has enormous productive power Karl Marx: Social conflict is now in the open Max Weber: From traditional to rational thought Emile Durkheim: From mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity

Why Do Societies Change? Lenski: technological innovation transforms society Karl Marx: struggle between social classes is the engine of change Max Weber: ideas contribute to change Emile Durkheim: expanding division of labour causes change