Sociology of Sport Sociologists study sport in terms of the social conditions that surround and are outside the individual athletes. Focus on relations, culture, social class, and ethnicity Sample research question: –how do the prevailing cultural definitions of masculinity and femininity affect the success of athletes?

Why Apply the Sociology of Sport?  Think Critically –Understand social problems of athletes and the social issues associated with sport  Beyond Physical Performance –See beyond the score and see how sport affects the way people feel, think, and live their lives  Informed Choices –Learning about sociology of sport will help you make intelligent choices about your own participation  Transforming Sport –Making schools and communities more inclusive through sports

Why Resistance to the Sociology of Sport?  Too Complex –Easier to change individual athletes –Easier to change the way athletes deal with external conditions –Requires a change in the external conditions of athletes lives  Personally Troubling –Coaches and parents view changes as causing trouble –Changing the way coaches exercise power and control over athletes requires coaches to make personal changes –Requires a change in the external conditions of athletes lives

Why study Sociology of Sport? Sport is related to all aspects of a society Learning about the sociology of sport teaches about the society  Ideology – a combination of ideal, beliefs and attitudes  Dominant ideology – the combination promoted by the dominant and powerful groups of a society

Gender Ideology Sports first developed around an ideology of gender The basic tenet of gender logic: –Women are naturally inferior to men!  In strength  Physical skill  Emotional control  Intelligence

Gender Ideology (2) The dominant ideology led to a sport vocabulary supporting the gender logic –Correct throw ( like a man) –Incorrect throw (like a girl) Coaches use the logic to motivate players –“you are playing like a bunch of girls.” Gender logic serves to privilege boys Gender logic creates discrimination against girls in sport The gender logic has also spilled over into all social life –politics –business

The Sandlot Clip "you play ball like a girl" VscCNZsYSY VscCNZsYSY

Title IX 1972 Educational Amendment Act Public High Schools and Colleges required to offer females equal access to sports.

Sport and Family Sport has major impacts of family life –Millions of children are involved in sport –Parents organize, coach, attend games and drive children to events –Changing patterns of youth involvement in sport result in changing patterns of family life

Sport and the Economy The economies of most countries are affected heavily by sport participation –Tax dollars are used to contribute to the success of sport in communities and most countries –Per capita income at the end of the 20 th century was about $4000, but some athletes were making $30 million per year in salary

Sport and Politics Sport is link to national pride –Politicians promote themselves by association with sport teams and players –Athletes are frequently elected to political office on the basis of athletic participation Jack Kemp Steve Largent

Soccer fans National Pride St. Louis Cardinals meet the President Manny Pacquiao - Philippines National Representative

Sport and Education Sport teams in High Schools and College usually attract more attention than academic events.

Sport and Education Sport are the most prominent representative of colleges - The success or failure of the institution is sometimes connected to success in sport

Sport and Religion Religious rituals are increasingly used in sport participation in the USA –Large nondenominational organizations have been created for the purpose of converting young athletes to a religious ideology (Fellowship of Christian Athletes) Churches sponsor athletic events –Churches alter schedules to accommodate sporting events

Sociology of Sport Theories

Functionalism’s Main Social Concern Functionalism is concerned with how social systems (like Sport) contribute to the needs of the society How does sport contribute to the smooth operation of society?

Functionalism’s Perception of Sport Sport is a valuable social institution that benefits society and individuals Sport is a source of inspiration on both the personal and social levels of society

Criticisms of Functionalist Theory Overstates the positive consequences Overlooks the negative Ignores the unequal participation rates for all sports Ignores the social construction of sport in society Ignores the diversity in sport Ignores the extent to which sport promotes the interest of wealth and power

Conflict Theory’s Major Social Concerns How is economic power distributed and used in society? What are the dynamics of social class relations? Who is privileged and exploited in class relations?

Conflict Theory and the Perception of Sport Sport is a form of physical activity that is distorted by the needs of capital. Sport is an opiate that distracts attention away from the social problems created by economic exploitation.

Criticism of Conflict Theory Overstates the influence of economic interests Assumes that those with economic wealth shape sports to meet economic interests Ignores sport as a liberating experience

Symolic Interaction Theory and Sport  The basic tenet of Interaction Theory is: –Social order is created from the bottom up through intentional interaction

Interaction Theory’s Major Social Concerns How are meanings, identities, and culture created through social interaction? How do people become involved in sports, become defined as athletes, and move out of sports into the rest of their lives?

Criticisms of the Interaction Theory of Sport Fails to explain how the meaning of sport is connected to individual identity. Ignores issues of social power in sport.

Studies of Sport Experiences

Stevenson’s Findings (1999) Becoming an elite athlete involves: Becoming an elite athlete involves: The process of introduction and involvement The process of developing commitment

Donnelly & Young’s Findings (1999) Becoming an athlete in a sport subculture involves: Becoming an athlete in a sport subculture involves: Acquiring knowledge about the sport Associating with people in the sport Internalizing the norms of the sport Receiving recognition and acceptance from other athletes

Coakley & White’s Findings (1999) Deciding to play sports depends on: Deciding to play sports depends on: Ideas about sport’s connection to other interests and goals Desires to develop & display competence Social and material support Memories of past experiences in sports General cultural images and messages about sports

Functionalist and Conflict Theory: Research on Dropping Out of Sports People don’t drop out forever, nor do they cut all ties with sports Dropping out is tied to other changes and transitions in a person’s life Dropping out is not just related to bad experiences Dropping out may cause problems among those who  Have identities grounded totally in sports  Lack social & material resources

Coakley’s Findings (1992) Burnout among elite adolescent athletes was most likely when: High performance sports were organized so that athletes had little control over their lives Sport involvement interfered with accomplishing important developmental tasks

Koukouris’ Findings (1994) Ending or reducing sport participation was associated with: The need to find a job and become independent Realistic assessments of sport skills and potential for future achievements Efforts to stay physically active and connected with sports

Wheeler’s Findings (1999) When competitive sport careers ended, the main challenges faced by athletes with disabilities were: Reinvesting time and energy into other spheres of life Reconnecting with family members and friends Going back to school and getting on with occupational careers

Summary: Changing or Ending Competitive Sport Participation Changes in participation are grounded in decision-making processes tied to people’s lives, life courses, and social worlds Identity issues and developmental issues are important Problems are most likely when sport participation has constricted a person’s life

Do Sports Build Character? In many cultures people use a form of character logic that assumes that playing sports automatically builds positive traits In many cultures people use a form of character logic that assumes that playing sports automatically builds positive traits

Factors Often Overlooked in Research on Character Building in Sports 1.Different sports offer different experiences 2.Selection processes in organized sports favor some characteristics over others 3.Different people define sport experiences in different ways 4.Meanings given to sport experiences often change over time