Module 2 Psychology & Science

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik Module 2: Psychology and Science LevelsWhat is studied? Genetic Gene function, heritability, twin and adoption studies Neurochemical Neurotransmitters, hormones animal studies, pharmaceutical drug studies, Brain systems Neuroanatomical structures, animal studies, brain imaging Behavioral Observable actions, responses, physical movements Perceptual and Cognitive Thinking, decision-making, language, memory, motivation, beliefs Social Situations, context, cultural norms, group decision-making, group behavior Individual Personality traits, sex differences, human development

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Advantages of scientific method – scientific Method – approach of gathering information and answering questions so that errors and biases are minimized

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Conducting Research: seven rules – Rule 1: Ask – Rule 2: Identify – Rule 3: Choose – Rule 4: Assign – Rule 5: Manipulate – Rule 6: Measure – Rule 7: Analyze

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Rule 1: Ask – hypothesis – educated guess about some phenomenon stated in precise, concrete language to rule out any confusion or error in the meaning of its terms

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Rule 2: Identify – independent variable a treatment or something that the researcher controls or manipulates – dependent variable one or more of the subjects’ behaviors that are used to measure the potential effects of the treatment or independent variable

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Rule 3: Choose – random selection each participant in a sample population has an equal chance of being selected for the experiment Rule 4: Assign – experimental group those who receive the treatment control group participants who undergo all the same procedures as the experimental participants except that the control participants do not receive the treatment

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Rule 5: Manipulate – double blind procedure neither participants nor researchers know which group is receiving which treatment Rule 6: Measure – by manipulating the treatment so that the experimental group receives a different treatment than the control group, researchers are able to measure how the independent variable (treatment) affects those behaviors that have been selected as the dependent variables

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Rule 7: Analyze – statistical procedures used to determine whether differences observed in dependent variables (behaviors) are due to independent variables (treatment) or to error or chance occurrence

ANSWERING QUESTIONS Researchers use all five methods – Survey – Case Study – Experiment – Observation – Correlational Comparison each method provides a different kind of information

SURVEYS Survey – way to obtain information by asking many individuals – answer a fixed set of questions about particular subjects

SURVEYS Disadvantages – information can contain errors – results can be biased Advantage – efficient way to obtain much information from a large number of people

CASE STUDY Case study – an in-depth analysis of the thoughts, feelings, beliefs, experiences, behaviors, or problems of a single individual

CASE STUDY Disadvantage – detailed information about a particular person may not apply to others Advantage – detailed information allows greater understanding of a particular person’s life

EXPERIMENT Experiment – a method for identifying cause-and- effect relationships by following a set of rules and guidelines that minimize the possibility of error, bias, and chance occurrences.

EXPERIMENT Disadvantage – information obtained in one experimental situation or laboratory setting may not apply to other situations Advantage – has the greatest potential for identifying cause-and-effect relationships with less error and bias than either surveys or case studies

OBSERVATION Naturalistic: – Performing an observation in a natural setting, sometimes hiding from the subjects being studied Advantage – Often yields genuine data, since subjects are unaware of study Disadvantage - Reactivity - Observer Bias

OBSERVATION

Measures of Central Tendency When studying and comparing statistics, often times you want to give what is common, typical, average etc. To do this you use mean, median, and the mode. 1. Mean: the arithmetic average of all the individual measurements in a distribution

1. $ 000(zero)8. $80, $ 5,0009. $100, $10, $150, $20, $200, $40, $400, $40, $10,000, $40,000 Add together and divide by 13 = $11,085,000; divide this by 13 and you get the mean of $852, Measures of Central Tendency

1. Mode: figure that occurs most frequently in a given set of data. 1. $ 000(zero)8. $80, $ 5,0009. $100, $10, $150, $20, $200, $40, $400, $40, $10,000, $40,000 In this example it is $40,000. Measures of Central Tendency

1. Median: the middle of any set of figures. 1. $ 000(zero)8. $80, $ 5,0009. $100, $10, $150, $20, $200, $40, $400, $40, $10,000, $40,000 In this example, the median would be $40,000.

CORRELATION Correlation – an association or relationship between the occurrence of two or more events (a.k.a. a correlational relationship) Correlation coefficient – a number that indicates the strength of a relationship between two or more events: the closer the number is to –1.00 or +1.00, the greater is the strength of the relationship

Correlational Research Another tool for the researcher 1) As a first step prior to experimentation 2) When causations cannot be found 3) When experiments cannot be conducted (for ethical or practical reasons)

Correlational Research Types of correlational studies 1) Observational Research e.g., class attendance and grades 2) Survey Research e.g., living together and divorce rates 3) Archival Research e.g., violence and economics

Correlational Research Example: Why are children aggressive? Hypothesis: aggression is a learned behavior as a result of modeling. Test: look for associations between aggressive behavior and..

Correlational Research Interpreting Correlations Scores range from -1 to +1 -1, negative relationship example of a negative : drinking in college and GPA 0, no relationship example of a near zero : hair length and GPA +1, positive relationship example of a positive : GPA and scores on SAT

CORRELATION Perfect positive correlation coefficient – means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal increase in a second event Positive correlation coefficient – indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does not always, increase – increases from to indicate a strengthening of the relationship between the occurrence of two events

CORRELATION Zero correlation – indicates that there is no relationship between the occurrence of one event and the occurrence of a second event Negative correlation coefficient – indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does not always, decrease – to indicates a strengthening in the relationship of one event increasing and the other decreasing

CORRELATION Perfect negative correlation coefficient – means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal decrease in a second event – correlations such as –1.00 are virtually never found in applied psychological research

DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH What is the best technique for answering a question? – Questionnaires and interviews – Laboratory experiments – Standardized tests – Animal models

DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH Interview – technique for obtaining information by asking questions, ranging from open- ended to highly structured, about a subject’s behaviors and attitudes, usually in a one-on-one situation Questionnaire – technique for obtaining information by asking subjects to read a list of written questions and check off specific answers

DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH Laboratory experiments – techniques to gather information about the brain, genes, or behavior with the lease error and bias by using a controlled environment that allows careful observation and measurement Standardized tests – technique to obtain information by administering a psychological test that has been given to hundreds of people and shown to reliably measure thought patterns, personality traits, emotions, or behaviors

DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH Animal Models – involves examining or manipulating some behavioral, genetic, or physiological factor that closely approximates some human problem, disease, or condition

DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH Choosing research settings – Naturalistic setting – Laboratory setting

DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH Naturalistic setting – relatively normal environment in which researchers gather information by observing individuals’ behaviors without attempting to change or control the situation Laboratory setting – involves studying individuals under systematic and controlled conditions, with many of the real-world influences eliminated

ETHICS

APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS Concerns about being a subject – human and animal Code of ethics – the American Psychological Association publishes a code of ethics and conduct for psychologists to follow when doing research, counseling, teaching, and related activities

APPLICATION: RESEARCH ETHICS Informed Consent Subject must have a reasonable understanding of the research, voluntarily agree to take part and be aware of any possible harm. Safety Mental and Physical safety must be the top priority, a research subject should never be in danger.

APPLICATION: RESEARCH ETHICS Role of deception – one way that researchers control for participants’ expectations is to use bogus procedures or instructions that prevent participants from learning the experiment’s true purpose – Debriefed If a subject is deceived they must be informed of the truth as soon as possible

APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS Ethics of animal research – How many animals are used in research? 18 to 22 million animals are used each year in biomedical research – Are research animals mistreated? Of the millions of animals used in research, only a few cases of animal mistreatment have been confirmed.

APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS Ethics of animal research – Is the use of animals justified? researchers are currently using animals to study epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, fetal alcohol syndrome, schizophrenia, AIDS, and transplantation of brain tissue none of which is possible with human subjects

APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS Ethics of animal research Who checks on the use of animals in research? U. S. Department of Agriculture Universities hire veterinarians Universities have animal subject committees

APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS Ethics of animal research – How do we strike a balance? many experts in the scientific, medical, and mental health communities believe that the conscientious and responsible use of animals in research is justified and should continue

USE OF PLACEBOS Placebo – intervention, such as taking a pill, receiving and injection, or undergoing an operation, that resembles medical therapy but which in fact, has no medical effects Placebo effect – change in the patient’s illness that is attributable to an imagined treatment rather than to a medical treatment

USE OF PLACEBOS – researchers believe that placebos work by reducing tension and distress and by creating powerful self-fulfilling prophecies – individuals think and behave as if the drug, actually a placebo, is effective