Career Pathways in Community Corrections

 Carl Klockars (1972) developed a classic typology of probation officers that defined 4 basic types of supervision officers: the law enforcer, the time- server, the therapeutic agent, & the synthetic officer  Most officers are characterized as either law enforcers or therapeutic agents, but the 2 styles can work together to become more like the synthetic officer (Steiner 2004)

 Common requirements to become a supervision officer: Have a baccalaureate degree No felony convictions Undergo a criminal background check In many states, be an American citizen  Two methods of becoming a supervision officer: appointment system merit system

 A judge or selection committee appoints a chief probation officer who hires assistants subject to the approval of the advisory body

 Merit or civil service systems were developed to remove public employees from political patronage  Applicants who meet minimum employment standards are required to pass a competitive exam  People who score above a specified minimum grade are placed on a ranked list, and candidates are selected from the list according to their order of rank

 Basic knowledge of human behavior  Good oral & written communication skills  Ability to build relationships & establish a rapport  Ability to treat people fairly, consistently, firmly, & with respect  Knowledgeable about different cultures  Good time managers

 Most adult probation & parole officers must have a minimum of a baccalaureate degree  Traditionally, probation officers were recruited out of the social work and psychology fields  A preference has emerged to recruit individuals with degrees in criminal justice, criminology, & sociology  Some jurisdictions require psychological evaluations, weapons qualification, & drug screening

 Preservice training: provides basic knowledge, skills, & abilities to new officers  Combined probation & parole offices require an average of 208 hours of preservice training  Probation & parole officers that are separate require fewer hours of training  Training topics include numerous topic categories and courses  States where officers carry firearms require completion of Peace Officer State Training (POST)

 The American Correctional Association recommends that juvenile probation officers receive 40 hours of preservice training  The American Bar Association suggests 80 hours of preservice training with an additional 48 hours within the first six months  Reddington & Kreisel found that 20 states certified juvenile probation officer positions with an average of 100 hours of preservice training, while other states had on the job training  Nationally, juvenile officers average fewer training hours than adult officers  There are no national training standards for juvenile probation

 In-service training: continuing education training that occurs annually for seasoned officers following the first year of employment  The American Correctional Association recommends that seasoned officers receive 40 hours of annual training  40 hours is the most common requirement for adult officers and 30 for juvenile officers

 Based on the positions advertised nationwide in 2009 ( an entry level probation officer or correctional treatment specialist with less than one year of experience can expect a median salary of $32, to 9 years = median of $37, to19 years = median is $43, years or more = median is $56,000  Salaries are impacted by whether the officer works in a local or state agency & whether the department stands- alone or is a combined probation/parole department

 Probation & parole administrators earn considerably more than field officers  The average salary for parole administrators = $161,435  The average for probation administrators = $101,109  For combined departments, probation/parole administrators = $84,442

 In the federal system, 85 of 94 judicial districts allow officers to carry weapons  In state & county level, officers in 35 adult probation jurisdictions & 40 adult parole jurisdictions carry firearms  Only ½ of the firearm-carrying jurisdictions are mandatory; many of the officers do not carry weapons  In the juvenile system, 13 states allow firearms for officers, 2 give officers the option and 2 narrow firearms to only certain counties or for officers who supervise serious juvenile offenders

 Many officers reported feeling safer when carrying a firearm, especially if working late nights or with gang/violent offenders  Opposition to officers carrying a firearm: question whether the threat to probation officers is real or perceived question whether weapons are needed for misdemeanants & juveniles contend that an officer carrying a weapon is actually at greater risk if a probationer or parolee is carrying a weapon An early study found that probation officers who carried a firearm experienced more confrontation incidents

 Officer confrontations have decreased as officers pay more attention to safety issues by conducting home visits in pairs, wearing body armor, & training in self- defense techniques  Carrying firearms involves ongoing liability & training costs  Not all officers want to carry a firearm. Options include chemical agents, stun guns, pressure points training, & field visits with two officers

 Firearms Policies for Probation and Parole Officers

 Sources of stress: Excessive paperwork Lack of promotional opportunity Lack of time to accomplish the job due to large caseloads Role ambiguity: officers have discretion & can choose whether to exercise it Role conflict: officers must be empathetic, understanding, objective & also able to terminate/revoke clients Court leniency on offenders Failure to recognize accomplishments Administrative policies & fear of being sued

 Best approach for officers is to follow department policy, follow the orders of the court or parole board, & justify their actions with accurate paperwork Negligence is the failure to do that which a reasonably prudent person would have done in a similar circumstance Officers who are grossly or willfully negligent may be liable for their actions if sued

 Probation & parole officers have different types of protection from civil lawsuits depending on the function they perform  Absolute Immunity: protects government officials unless they engage in acts that are intentionally & maliciously wrong Protects those who act in a legislative, quasi-judicial, & prosecutorial function Protects parole board officials in release, revocation decisions Protects officers preparing PSI reports  Qualified Immunity: limited to those in the executive branch or workers performing administrative functions whose actions are “objectively reasonable” & within the scope of agency policies Probation & parole officers have qualified immunity for most of the actions they take

 As state and local governments look to trim costs in their budgets, they have turned to private companies (public service providers) for an array of services from drug testing to electronic monitoring  The private service providers can be profit & non- profit organizations that provide both supervision & treatment services  Private, nonprofit entities have been involved in community supervision of offenders since the 1800s

 At least 18 states currently use the private sector for some form of supervision, 10 of whom rely on private agencies for the supervising misdemeanor & low-risk clients  Regulating the private sector has been slow, with some jurisdictions operating under unclear or non-existent standards for awarding contracts to private providers, staff hiring requirements, & curriculums for outpatient treatment services

 The need to provide effective correctional services is at odds with having to make a profit for the business  Private sector probation competes with the government’s traditional & ultimate responsibility to carry out punishment fairly  The private sector is not equipped to be a full-service organization & only takes low-risk offenders  Private-sector services do not have a uniform method of monitoring probation conditions or ensuring the collection of victim restitution  Employees of private companies receive less training & opportunity for career advancement, with higher turnover

 Some states have no requirement that private providers demonstrate qualifications such as licensing & experience  The Supreme Court’s rulings in Richardson v. McKnight (1997) & Correctional Services Corp. v. Malesko (2001), indicate that individual employees of private correctional companies have little protection from civil lawsuits because they are not protected by qualified immunity & the private company itself cannot be sued under federal civil rights law

 In 2008, a Marin County, California Civil Grand Jury issued a report stating that the county’s unarmed probation officers were at risk & urged the county to develop a limited arming policy. The county probation department started a Limited Arming Pilot Project in Most California county probation departments allow officers to be armed.  