15.1

 Science: the pursuit of knowledge through systematic methods  Gains prominence over religious beliefs as the principal method by which to understand nature in the 1600 and 1700s  Interested in how the structure of society and the organization of science itself have affected scientific development  Socioilogy of science: sociological investigation of how scientific knowledge develops

1. The Birth of Science a. Emerges as recognizable system of study in 300s B.C. b. Plato and Aristotle in Greece i.Mathematics, astronomy, biology, physics and medicine c. Greek culture spreads during the Hellenistic Age- 300s to 100s B.C. d. The decline of the Roman Empire slows the quest in Europe for scientific knowledge e. The Catholic Church begins to grow in power and influence- people begin to turn to God for answers in times of trouble

f. People turn to philosophy and religion for explanations of the workings of the natural world g years pass before science remerges in Europe 2. The Rebirth of Science a. The Renaissance: began in Italy in 1300s A.D. by- product of trade with the East. Italian merchants gain wealth and used their wealth to support the arts and learning

b. Printing Press: made production of books relatively inexpensive, which helped spread scientific knowledge; stimulate the desire for learning c. Age of Exploration: 1400s to 1600s; European countries sail the oceans in search of routes East; encouraged science by placing importance on astronomy and mathematics needed to assist in navigation; explorers brought back plants, animals and diseases that sparked scientific curiosity

d. Protestant Reformation: question the idea that the power of religious salvation rested in the hands of the priests ▪ argued people could find salvation through their own efforts ▪ Emphasis on individualism lessened public resistance to scientific inquiry i.Scientific revolution- redefined the nature of the universe, the methods of scientific research, and the functions of science Scientists envision a world not controlled y divine spirits, but a universe operated according to a system of natural laws ii.Scientific method- objective and systematic way of collection information and arriving at conclusions iii.Enlightenment- revolution in social thought; supported reason over religious beliefs, main tools were scientific method and scientific fact; spread of democracy; created stat supported education systems

3. Modern Science a. Late 1800s and 1900s becomes widely significant  Industrialization  Saw science as a tool towards progress; developing new technologies b. Early 1900s modern organization of science begins i.Specialization emerges: reinforced by the university system  Reinforces the idea of professionalization of science- employment in the sciences

1. Four Basic Norms of science a. Universalism: scientific research should be judged solely on the basis of quality; scientists class, race, gender, nationality, or religion should not play a factor in how research findings are evaluated; open to everyone b. Organized skepticism: no scientific theory or finding is exempt from questioning; helps to prevent stagnation and that theories are blindly accepted

c. Communalism: belief that scientific knowledge should be made available to everyone in the scientific community; findings belong to science as a whole not just individuals d. Disinterestedness: should seek truth not personal gain; the goal is not rewards, political agendas or religious criteria, or not popular views

2. Counter norms a. Follow when issues are not well-defined or controversial b. Follow- particularism, organized dogmatism, solitariness, and interested approach

1. Fraud a. Piltdown Hoax: Piltdown man was the “missing link” between apes and humans; later discoveries proved the Piltdown was a fraud b. John Darsee: falsified data the formed the basis for at least 70 scientific articles on heart disease c. Gallo vs Montagnier: both claim first to isolate a form of HIV

2. Competition a. Fear of “beaten to the punch” b. Potential for economic profit amplifies scientific discoveries c. Rushing data- misinformation 3. The Matthew Effect- named by Merton for scientists who have not yet made their mark; recognition goes to scientists with the “bigger name”

4. Conflicting Views of Reality a. Black Plague- the anger of God i.Brotherhood of Flagellants- fundamentalist sect that whipped themselves to appease God a.Looked for a scapegoat b.Found the scapegoat in the Jews- persecuted unmercifully; driven from homes and burned to death; executed in mass hangings b. Paradigm: set of shred concepts, methods, and assumptions that make up scientific reality at any point in time; Coined by Thomas Kuhn c. Perceptions- political ideology and reluctance e to accept Western ideas greatly slowed scientific progress in many parts of the world